Actions speak: personality, nonverbal behaviors, and self-perceptions of vulnerability in college-aged women
| Date | 25 April 2024 |
| Pages | 411-427 |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.1108/JCP-02-2024-0013 |
| Published date | 25 April 2024 |
| Author | Jayme Stewart,Jessie Swanek,Adelle Forth |
Actions speak: personality, nonverbal
behaviors, and self-perceptions of
vulnerability in college-aged women
Jayme Stewart, Jessie Swanek and Adelle Forth
Abstract
Purpose –Despite representinga relatively small portion ofthe population, those who experience repeat
victimizationmake up a significant share of all sexualand violent crimes, implying that perpetratorstarget
them repeatedly.Indeed, research reveals specific traits (e.g.submissiveness) and behaviors (e.g. gait)
related to past victimization or vulnerability. The purpose of this study is to explore the link between
personalitytraits, self-assessed vulnerabilityand nonverbal cues.
Design/methodology/approach –In all, 40 undergraduate Canadian women were videotaped while
recording a dating profile. Self-report measures of assertiveness, personality traits and vulnerability
ratings for future sexual or violent victimization were obtained following the video-recording. The
videotape was coded for nonverbal behaviors that have been related to assertiveness or
submissiveness.
Findings –Self-perceived sexual vulnerability correlated with reduced assertiveness and dominance
and increased emotionality (e.g.fear and anxiety). Additionally, nonverbal behaviors differed basedon
personality traits: self-touchwas linked to lower assertiveness, dominance and extraversion and higher
submissiveness,emotionality and warm-agreeableness.
Originality/value –To the best of the authors’ knowledge,this is the first study of its kind to consider the
relationships betweenpersonality, self-perceived vulnerabilityand nonverbal behaviors among college-
aged women.Potential implications, includingenhancing autonomy and self-efficacy,are discussed.
Keywords Personality, Vulnerability, Sexual victimization, Violent victimization, Nonverbalbehavior
Paper type Research paper
Every day, we engage in nonverbal decoding during social interactions, where a
significant portion of our exchanges can be understood through nonverbal
behaviors (Burgoon et al.,1996). Nonverbal evaluations not only help us identify
potential threats but also act as one of the primary mechanisms of judgement in the
decision to form bonds and relationships. For example, the ability to determine what
emotion people are feeling and whether those emotions are genuine often provides us with
our first indicator of trustworthiness or authenticity. Personality traits, conveyed through
nonverbal cues such as emotional displays, eye contact, body movements and gestures
(Argyle, 1975;Simpson et al.,1993), contribute to this assessment process, aiding in
predicting future behavior and affectivestates (Berger and Calabrese, 1975).
Unfortunately, these skills may also be used by some to identify the most suitable
candidates for potentially dangerous and/or criminal situations (e.g. assault, theft and
scams). Research suggests that depending on victimization type, 0.7%–39.2% of people
experience repeat victimization throughout their lifetime (i.e. more than one occurrence of
victimization; Daigle et al.,2008;Gabor and Mata, 2004). These individuals comprise a
disproportionate amount of all sexual and violent victimization, ranging from approximately
Jayme Stewart is based at
the Department of
Psychology, The University
of British Columbia
Okanagan, Kelowna,
Canada. Jessie Swanek
and Adelle Forth are both
based at the Department of
Psychology, Carleton
University, Ottawa,
Canada.
Received 27 February 2024
Revised 20 March 2024
Accepted 22 March 2024
Funding: The authors did not
receive support from any
organization for the submitted
work.
Conflicts of interest/Competing
interests: The authors have no
conflicts of interest to declare
that are relevant to the content
of this article.
DOI 10.1108/JCP-02-2024-0013 VOL. 14 NO. 4 2024, pp. 411-427, ©Emerald Publishing Limited, ISSN 2009-3829 jJOURNAL OF CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY jPAGE 411
27.7% to 72.4% of events (Daigle et al.,2008;Gabor and Mata, 2004; for a review see
Wager et al.,2021), indicating that perpetrators often target/identify vulnerable peoples.
Given the potential negative outcomes (e.g. depression, anxiety and suicidal ideation;
Debowska et al., 2024;Thornton et al.,2023;Zinzow et al.,2012) that sexual and physical
abuse may have upon those affected, researchers have sought to examine the potential
correlates of victimizationand vulnerability.
Extant literature has primarilyfocused on the characteristics of those who perpetrate sexual
and violent offences, with fewer studies considering how victim’s personality variables or
nonverbal behaviors relate to victimization. This said, previously victimized individuals are
more neurotic, anxious, depressed and fearful than nonvictimsand, in social situations, may
show signs of submissiveness and low confidence (Blackburn et al.,2023;Conley et al.,
2017;Dworkin et al.,2017). Interestingly, the perceptions of personality in victims vary
between incarcerated versus community samples. Researchers have suggested that
incarcerated individuals target persons demonstrating extraverted, caring or naı
¨ve
behaviors (e.g. smiling and affectionate; Beauregard et al., 2007;Stevens, 1994), while in
community samples, previously victimized women appear less confident to others (Goetz
et al., 2012). Multiple studies have reported that low sexual assertiveness is not only
associated with previous sexual victimization but can act as a predictor of future sexual
victimization (Greene and Navarro,1998;Kelley et al., 2016;VanZile-Tamsen et al.,2005).
In the studies that have examined the relationships between nonverbal behaviors,
personality and victimization, a few patterns have begun to emerge. Submissiveness, for
instance, may manifest by engaging in arm-crossing behaviors and isolated hand or foot
movements (Fetterman et al.,2015;Richards et al., 1991). Conversely, expressions of
dominance may be characterized by expressive or intense facial expressions, direct gaze,
nodding, bodily openness and a tendency to engage in less self-touch (Hall et al.,2005).
This is in alignment with the internal states model, which suggests that external behaviors
are a result of dynamic (e.g. mood) and static (e.g. personality) internal factors (Gillespie
and Leffler, 1983). Specific to victimization, much of what we know regarding nonverbal
behaviors and vulnerability comes from research using gait. Stemming from Grayson and
Stein’s (1981) work where vulnerability to future victimization was associated with distinct
and identifiable patterns (e.g. long or short strides, moving unilaterally and gazing
downwards), this line of inquiry has demonstrated that previously victimized individuals
exhibit more vulnerable gait cues than nonvictims (Blaskovits and Bennell, 2019;Ritchie,
2016).
Currently, there has been relatively limited empirical attention regarding the relationship
between victimization and nonverbal behaviors other than gait. Of theexisting literature, one
study found that women who were victims of childhood sexual assault demonstrated fewer
head movements and were less animated with their movements than women who did not
experience childhood sexual assault (Parks et al., 2008). For incarcerated individuals,
nonverbal behaviors serve as indicators of not only another’s personality but also their
vulnerability as well. For instance, Stevens (1994) conducted a study involving sexual
offenders, where 66% expressed a preference for victims who appeared “easy prey,” often
emphasizing how their victims carried themselves. For example, one participant stated that
“when a woman answered [my] question and glanced down or [looked] away, [I] knew she
could be victimized” (Stevens, 1994,p. 426).
In general, women are more likely than men to worry about victimization because of factors
including perceived likelihood of occurrence and lower perceived self-efficacy (Jackson,
2009). Gender roles and stereotypes, including societal norms encouraging submissive,
fearful, warm and nurturing women and dominant, fearless and aggressive men, may
contribute to this (Angelone et al.,2020;Casad and Lee, 2014). Despite these influences, to
our knowledge, no empirical study has explored how self-perceived vulnerability relates to
personality and nonverbal behaviors. Yet, this perception of personal vulnerability could
PAGE 412 jJOURNAL OF CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY jVOL. 14 NO. 4 2024
Get this document and AI-powered insights with a free trial of vLex and Vincent AI
Get Started for FreeStart Your Free Trial of vLex and Vincent AI, Your Precision-Engineered Legal Assistant
-
Access comprehensive legal content with no limitations across vLex's unparalleled global legal database
-
Build stronger arguments with verified citations and CERT citator that tracks case history and precedential strength
-
Transform your legal research from hours to minutes with Vincent AI's intelligent search and analysis capabilities
-
Elevate your practice by focusing your expertise where it matters most while Vincent handles the heavy lifting
Start Your Free Trial of vLex and Vincent AI, Your Precision-Engineered Legal Assistant
-
Access comprehensive legal content with no limitations across vLex's unparalleled global legal database
-
Build stronger arguments with verified citations and CERT citator that tracks case history and precedential strength
-
Transform your legal research from hours to minutes with Vincent AI's intelligent search and analysis capabilities
-
Elevate your practice by focusing your expertise where it matters most while Vincent handles the heavy lifting
Start Your Free Trial of vLex and Vincent AI, Your Precision-Engineered Legal Assistant
-
Access comprehensive legal content with no limitations across vLex's unparalleled global legal database
-
Build stronger arguments with verified citations and CERT citator that tracks case history and precedential strength
-
Transform your legal research from hours to minutes with Vincent AI's intelligent search and analysis capabilities
-
Elevate your practice by focusing your expertise where it matters most while Vincent handles the heavy lifting
Start Your Free Trial of vLex and Vincent AI, Your Precision-Engineered Legal Assistant
-
Access comprehensive legal content with no limitations across vLex's unparalleled global legal database
-
Build stronger arguments with verified citations and CERT citator that tracks case history and precedential strength
-
Transform your legal research from hours to minutes with Vincent AI's intelligent search and analysis capabilities
-
Elevate your practice by focusing your expertise where it matters most while Vincent handles the heavy lifting
Start Your Free Trial of vLex and Vincent AI, Your Precision-Engineered Legal Assistant
-
Access comprehensive legal content with no limitations across vLex's unparalleled global legal database
-
Build stronger arguments with verified citations and CERT citator that tracks case history and precedential strength
-
Transform your legal research from hours to minutes with Vincent AI's intelligent search and analysis capabilities
-
Elevate your practice by focusing your expertise where it matters most while Vincent handles the heavy lifting