A Comprehensive Assessment of Crime Investigation Policy in Japan, by Crime, Clearance and Criminal Rates
| Date | 01 September 2008 |
| DOI | 10.1350/ijps.2008.10.3.82 |
| Author | H. Kinoshita,S. Hishida,T. Yamamura |
| Published date | 01 September 2008 |
| Subject Matter | Article |
A comprehensive assessment of crime
investigation policy in Japan, by crime,
clearance and criminal rates
T. Yamamura†, H. Kinoshita‡ and S. Hishida
All authors may be contacted at Department of Legal Medicine, Hyogo College of
Medicine, 1–1, Mukogawa, Nishinomiya, Japan
†(Corresponding author) Tel: +81-798-45-6578; Fax: +81-798-49-3279; email:
tycrime@hyo-med.ac.jp
‡Email: kinochin@hyo-med.ac.jp
Received 13 March 2007; revised and accepted 24 August 2007
Keywords: crime investigation; crime rate; clearance rate; criminal rate;
policing; index serious offence; index larceny offences
Takehiko Yamamura PhD is currently serving as
is also an active member of the Japanese Asso-
an instructor for criminalistics at Hyogo College
ciation of Criminology. He has written a number
of Medicine, Japan. He was an administrative
of papers and books on legal medicine and
director for research at the Forensic Science
forensic toxicology.
Laboratory, the Detective Division, Hyogo Pre-
fecture Police Headquarters. He is an active
member of the Japanese Association of Crimino-
ABSTRACT
logy and the Japanese Society of Legal Medi-
The present study aims to demonstrate the effect-
cine. He has written a number of papers and
iveness of crime investigation policy by crime,
books on crime investigation, has employed his
clearance and criminal rates, analysed using data
technique in a wide variety of criminal cases and
published by the Japanese Government. The
has testified for the prosecution.
major findings of the study show that: (1) the
Hiroshi Kinoshita MD, PhD is professor of legal
crime rate declined steadily between 1945 and
medicine, Hyogo College of Medicine, Japan. He
1975, but then increased again from 1975 to
is an active member of the Japanese Society of
2003, accelerating from 1985, with a sharp rise
Legal Medicine and the Japanese Medical
from 1995, and then began to descend again
Society of Alcohol and Drug Studies. He is also
from 2003; (2) considerably better clearance rates
an active member of the Japanese Association
were achieved between 1945 and 1985, but
of Criminology. He has written a number of
rates subsequently dropped suddenly in 1985
papers and books on legal medicine and forensic
and continue to be sluggish; (3) the criminal rate
toxicology.
(the number of persons in custody per 100,000
Shigeru Hishida MD, PhD is professor emeritus
inhabitants) has shown a decline during the
of the Hyogo College of Medicine, Japan. He has
decades since 1945. The study concludes that:
been a professor at the Department of Legal
(1) there is a misdirected target-setting policy for
Medicine, Hyogo College of Medicine for over 27
crime investigation which aggravates the crime
years. He is a honorary member of the Japanese
rate; (2) an inefficient training programmes for
International Journal of Police
Science and Management,
Society of Legal Medicine and the Japanese
replacement detectives to improve their perform-
Vol. 10 No. 3, 2008, pp. 255–266.
DOI: 10.1350/ijps.2008.10.3.82
Medical Society of Alcohol and Drug Studies. He
ance induces a drop in the clearance rate; and (3)
Page 255
A comprehensive assessment of crime investigation policy in Japan
the objective of minimising citizens’ fear of crime
role. Criminal investigation relies on an
depends on efficient crime investigation by experi-
investigator’s personal involvement to
enced, expert detectives based on best practice at
develop investigative expertise. This has
the crime scene, resulting in the arrest of
both advantages and disadvantages. The
offenders. The implications of these findings are
expertise required to solve a particular type
discussed with reference to several policing prac-
of crime can only come about through long
tices in crime investigation.
experience with that type of crime.
This article attempts to review what is
currently known about the nature and
INTRODUCTION
effectiveness of crime investigation policy.
Communities wish to minimise their fear of
Although crime investigation efforts are
crime. Policing is found to be effective
supported widely by theory, and studies of
when outcomes in reducing the fear of
structural aspects, organised investigation
crime are well achieved and the public’s
systems and numerous one-sided designed
perception that crime is rare or that the
evaluations, more research is needed not
crime rate is falling is well established
only to determine collective policies for
(Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985). There is a
crime prevention strategies, but also to
growing awareness that the multidisciplin-
examine a number of promising approaches
ary approaches to crime prevention are
that are currently are being developed.
more appropriate to crime interpretation
and understanding (Donziger, 1995). There
are few definite reports, however, that are
METHOD
appropriate for evaluating the functions of
Data were drawn from a series of police
the crime investigation authorities, aside
White Papers (National Police Agency,
from a large variety of case reports.
1975–2005a), and Crimes in Japan (National
The police have been authorised by the
Police Agency, 1975–2005b) prepared by
Police Act and the Code of Criminal Pro-
the National Police Agency.
cedure to prevent, suppress and investigate
The crime rate is derived from the number
crimes in order to maintain public safety
of cases known to the police (NCKP) per
and order. Complying with these respons-
100,000 inhabitants. The criminal rate is
ibilities, the schematic structure of police
from the number of persons in police cus-
practices can be described as a three-layer
tody (NPC) per 100,000 responsible inhab-
model, partially based on Adhami and
itants (population of 14-years-old and
Browne’s (1966) standard knowledge-based
above, who are criminally responsible for
systems methodology, comprising a security
their action). The clearance rate is the per
layer as the basic overall function of the
centage of cases solved of the total NCKP.
police, a second layer as the law enforce-
The corrected criminal rate is the estimated
ment sphere to prevent or control crimes,
NPC against the clearance rate.
and a third layer as the investigation level
to identify and apprehend criminals. It
requires the demonstration of detectives’
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
expertise, which is largely dependent on
experience. Police detectives’ skills derive
Number of cases known to the police
from personal experience of a wide variety
(NCKP), cases cleared up (NCC) and
of crimes over a number of years, either at
persons in custody (NPC)
first hand or by serving with more experi-
Figure 1 shows the trends in the NCKP,
enced investigators in an apprenticeship
NCC and NPC from 1925 to 2005 for
Page 256
Yamamura, Kinoshita and Hishida
Figure 1
Trends in the number of
cases known to police,
the number of cases
cleared (solved), and the
number of persons in
custody from 1925 to
2005 in Japan
Note:
NB: the left-hand arrow indicates the end of the Second World War (Greater East Asia
War). The middle arrow indicates when long-serving expert detectives retired from the
police force, and the right-hand arrow indicates the onset of criminal investigation by
their successors, complying with the Criminal Procedure Act 1949.
general penal code offences (GPCO) in
Number of cases known to the police
Japan (with the exclusion of negligence in
(NCKP)
traffic accidents), which include most
Japan held crime to a remarkably low,
offences that harm people’s lives, bodies and
steady rate during almost the whole of the
property. The Showa era started in 1925.
second half of the twentieth century. The
The left-hand arrow in Figure 1 indicates
NCKP for GPCO, at 1,000,000 to
1945, the end of the Second World War
1,500,000, remained largely stable with a
(aka, the Pacific War or Greater East Asia
slight decrease during the three decades
War), when the Japanese police force was
from 1945 to 1975. From 1975, however, it
reconstituted and then provided with new
gradually increased, worsening from 1985.
enforcement powers by the Criminal Pro-
In 1992, the police announced that their
cedure Act 1949. The middle arrow points
policy for crime investigation was to focus
to 1975, the time when long-serving,
on the index of serious offences (ISO) and
expert detectives retired from the police
the index of larceny offences (ILO), in
force. The right-hand arrow at 1985 indi-
order to counter the worsening crime situ-
cates the onset of crime investigation by the
ation. The following...
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