Daily Organisational Hassles and Uplifts as Determinants of Psychological and Physical Health in a Sample of New Zealand Police
| Date | 01 June 2008 |
| DOI | 10.1350/ijps.2008.10.2.73 |
| Author | Christine Stephens,Leith A. Pugmire |
| Published date | 01 June 2008 |
| Subject Matter | Article |
Daily organisational hassles and uplifts as
determinants of psychological and
physical health in a sample of New
Zealand police
Christine Stephens† and Leith A. Pugmire
†Corresponding author.
Both authors: School of Psychology, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
Tel: 06 350 5799 (ext. 2081); Fax: 06 350 5673; email: C.V.Stephens@massey.ac.nz
Received 14 February 2007; accepted 22 May 2007
Keywords: hassles, uplifts, daily events, organisational stressors, police
stress, psychological distress, self-rated health
Christine Stephens is a senior lecturer and
health. Some suggestions for the improvement of
researcher in the School of Psychology at
the police specific measure of hassles and uplifts
Massey University where she is involved in
are made for future exploration of the relation-
supervising longitudinal research on traumatic
ships between positive and negative experiences at
and organisational stress in the New Zealand
work in regard to stress.
Police.
Leith Pugmire is a clinical intern in the School of
Psychology and participated in the research
INTRODUCTION
reported here as part of her BA Honours degree
The prevention and reduction of stress is of
in psychology.
concern to all employers. Within police
organisations, stress places individuals at risk
for ill-health and suicide (eg Violanti, 2005),
ABSTRACT
and is blamed for negative effects on turn-
This study investigated the role of minor daily
over (New Zealand Police, 1998). Malloy
events (organisational hassles and uplifts) as
and Mays (1984) early questioned the
determinants of psychological distress and self-
assumption that policing is more stressful
rated health in a sample of 326 New Zealand
than other occupations, but also pointed to
police officers. Hassles were associated with neg-
the more important issue of identifying and
ative outcomes, and uplifts with positive health
alleviating stress at work. The aim of this
outcomes. Tests of relationships between hassles,
study was to increase our understanding of
uplifts and health showed that hassles were not
the stress construct and its relationship to
positively correlated with uplifts and that the
well-being. We focus on two central issues
hassles and health relationship was not moder-
in police stress research at present: the
ated by uplifts, however, the prediction that more
nature of police work stressors, and the
hassles than uplifts would negatively affect health
measurement of stressors in relation to well-
was supported. These results suggest that both
being.
International Journal of Police
Science and Management,
decreasing hassles and increasing uplifts are prom-
An important issue in this area is the
Vol. 10 No. 2, 2008, pp. 179–191.
DOI: 10.1350/ijps.2008.10.2.73
ising approaches to organisational improvement of
nature of the stressors themselves. Stressors
Page 179
Daily hassles and uplifts as determinants of psychological and physical health
experienced by police have been divided
job overload, change in supervisors, neg-
into two categories: job content and job
ative community attitudes, changing shifts,
context stressors (Evans & Coman, 1993);
and poor supervisors. The officers also
or similarly: event versus organisational
described their police organisations as
stressors (Sewell 1993). Organisational
poorly equipped to maintain their own
stressors are those relating to the structure
organisational systems, and lacking the flex-
of the organisation such as shift work, frus-
ibility to adapt to new environmental and
trating administrative policies, lack of sup-
social circumstances. The police officers felt
port from superiors, and excess paper work.
there was little chance of personal growth
Event stressors specific to police work
and development, and instead they were
include exposure to traumatic incidents and
bound to operate within narrow and inflex-
danger. It has often been assumed that the
ible rules and guidelines. Evans and Coman
duties police officers carry out (job content
concluded that ‘the major source of stress
or event stressors) make police work par-
for police officers comes from the organiza-
ticularly stressful and are responsible for
tion in which they work’ (p. 11). These
most negative health outcomes. However,
findings have continued to be supported in
researchers have long recognised that trau-
other samples. For example, Violanti and
matic events are not the only source of stress
Aron (1995) found that among New York
police officers, organisational (job context)
for police officers (Brough, 2005; Brown &
stressors had an effect on psychological dis-
Campbell, 1990; Evans & Coman, 1993;
tress over six times that of operational (job
Hart, Wearing, & Headey, 1993; Paton,
content) police stressors such as handling
Huddleston, & Stephens, 2006; Reiser,
bodies or violent offences. Accordingly, our
1974; Sewell, 1993; Sigler & Wilson 1988;
concern was to assess the effects of organisa-
Spielberger, Westberry, Grier, & Greenfield,
tional (job context) sources of stress on the
1981; Violanti & Aron, 1993). Indeed, a
well-being of police officers.
growing body of research suggests that job
It is also important to consider the con-
context (or organisational) stressors are of
ceptualisation and measurement of stressors.
greater concern and studies have found that
The first influential model of stressor meas-
workload or unfair work practices have an
urement considered stress in terms of major
important impact on psychological and
life events (Holmes & Rahe, 1967); how-
physical health outcomes for police officers
ever, correlations between measures of
(Huddleston, Stephens & Paton, 2007).
major life events and health tend to be
To compare the effects of job context
modest. Major life events models have also
(organisational) and job content (events)
been criticised for failing to take into
stressors on psychological symptoms, Evans
account subjective responses to events
and Coman (1993) surveyed 271 Australian
(Taylor, 2003), failing to distinguish
police officers. The results indicated that
between stressors specific to particular
although Australian police officers were
occupations (Evans & Coman, 1993) and
occasionally involved in highly stressful job
failing to explain how life events might
content events (eg the violent death of a
impact diverse health outcomes (Kanner,
partner on duty, shooting someone in the
Coyne, Schaefer, & Lazarus, 1981). There-
line of duty, or attending to the death of a
fore, Lazarus and colleagues (eg Kanner et
child), these events were perceived to be
al., 1981) suggested that stress might better
a necessary aspect of the job. In contrast,
be measured in terms of smaller, daily
the officers were frequently exposed to a
events. Consequently, there is a growing
stressful job context including long hours,
body of research on the effects of small,
Page 180
Stephens and Pugmire
frequent, negative events (‘hassles’), and
events. In an organisational context, Ivance-
their positive counterparts (‘uplifts’).
vich (1986) found that, although hassles
Hassles are the irritating, frustrating, dis-
were directly related to health outcomes,
tressing demands that to some degree char-
uplifts accounted for variance in job per-
acterize everyday transactions with the
formance and absenteeism. He argues that
environment’ (Kanner et al., 1981, p. 3).
to consider only negative stressors would
Hassles can be annoying practical problems
provide a distorted account of an indi-
such as losing things or traffic jams or bad
vidual’s total stress and reduce predictive
weather, as well as arguments, disappoint-
power, and so, including uplifts is
ments, and financial and family concerns
important.
(Kanner et al., 1981). Uplifts are the little
In order to measure police work stressors
positive occurrences which make daily
based on the daily events approach, Hart et
life easier or more pleasant (Lazarus &
al. (1994) developed the Police Daily
Folkman, 1984) and include things like
Hassles and Uplifts Scales. The work
compliments, working with people you
experiences of police officers were framed
like, flexible working hours or a comfort-
in terms of two broad categories, daily
able work environment. Measures of daily
organisational (job context) and daily
hassles and uplifts were found to be better
operational (job content) experiences. A
predictors of concurrent and subsequent
survey of Australian police officers based on
health than major life events, and this
this conceptualisation (Hart et al., 1995)
effect remains even when the effects of life
found that, as in other studies of police
events are controlled (Kanner et al. 1981;
stress, organisational (job context) rather
Ivancevich, 1986). The relationship of
than operational (job content) experiences
hassles with psychological distress and
were more important in relation to psycho-
health is well established (eg Safdar & Lay,
logical well-being. Organisational hassles
2003, Weinberger, Hiner, & Tierney, 1987),
which contributed to psychological well-
although there is less support for a relation-
being were daily issues related to commun-
ship between uplifts and health outcomes.
ication, administration, supervision, ratings,
Measurement scales have been developed
co-workers, morale, and workload. Uplifts
and improved by removing items that con-
found to be important were related to
found hassles with...
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