Developmental Links between Cruelty to Animals and Human Violence
| Published date | 01 December 2002 |
| Author | Cynthia M Turner,John McAloon,Mark R. Dadds |
| Date | 01 December 2002 |
| DOI | 10.1375/acri.35.3.363 |
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THE AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF CRIMINOLOGY
VOLUME 35 NUMBER 3 2002 PP.363–382
Address for correspondence: Mark R. Dadds, School of Psychology, University of New South
Wales, Sydney NSW, Australia 2052. Email: m.dadds@unsw.edu.au
Developmental Links between Cruelty
to Animals and Human Violence
Mark R. Dadds
University of New South Wales, Australia
Cynthia M.Turner and John McAloon
Griffith University, Australia
Reviews evidence for the significance of childhood cruelty to animals
as a predictor of later violence toward humans. Moves are under-
way in the United States (US) and Britain to encourage communication
and cross-fertilisation between animal welfare and child protection and
crime prevention services. Literature on healthy versus deviant child–pet
interactions is reviewed, with particular regard to the prediction of later
violence. Assessment and definitional issues are addressed.The discus-
sion culminates with a summary of substantive findings and the identifica-
tion of several research designs that are needed to clarify the potential
of early identification and remediation of child cruelty to animals as a
mental health promotion and violence prevention strategy.
Developmental Links Between Cruelty to Animals
and Human Violence
The phenomenon of childhood cruelty toward animals has slowly emerged as a
topic of scientific interest for two related reasons. Concern for the possible pain and
suffering experienced by animals became increasingly widespread after the
emergence of companion animals as a social phenomenon in the 16th and 17th
centuries. About this time, societies gradually allowed animals to enter the house,
encouraging the view that animals are worthy of moral consideration (Thomas,
1983). Of considerable interest to the behavioural and health sciences is the idea
that abusive treatment of animals is associated with increased likelihood of similar
conduct toward human beings. A memorable depiction of this view was provided by
English artist, William Hogarth, who condemned cruelty toward animals in his now
famous series of four etching-engravings, The Four Stages of Cruelty, produced in
1751. The series depict a progression in four scenes: a boy being cruel toward
animals; the same person, now a young man, beating a disabled horse; the young
man killing a woman; and finally, the execution of the man himself. The etching-
engravings eloquently summarise the proposed developmental progression attracting
much attention today; that early cruelty to animals is a prognostic sign of severe
violence to follow in adulthood.
Hypothesised links between cruelty to animals and cruelty to humans is
currently a topical and important issue. Instances of animal cruelty are increasingly
being seen as grounds for investigation into the welfare of children and their
families associated with the cruelty, and more generally, as a sign of concurrent or
impending violence toward humans. Already in the United States (US) (e.g., First
Strike Program — Humane Society of the United States), Britain, and elsewhere,
moves are underway to integrate animal protection processes to child and family
welfare and crime prevention bodies.
The aim of this paper is to provide a critical review of the literature on the
phenomena, causes and correlates, and outcomes of animal cruelty, especially in
children. Given our primary interest in community and preventive mental health,
we pose the following questions: to what extent is cruelty to animals a concurrent
or prognostic sign of pathology in children and/or their family systems. Can cruelty
to animals be a specific predictor of concurrent and future violence (to humans)
over and above other associated problems in the child and family? What are its
correlates and causes? If cruelty to animals is a distinctive marker for concurrent or
future problems, how can its identification be used to reduce violence and other
problems in our society? Can cruelty to animals, or conversely, concern and
empathy for the welfare of other organisms, be modified by social interventions?
The complexities of child–animal interactions are not unlike the complexities
of human interactions; complexities that need to be explored, documented and
empirically examined (Boat, 1997). However, one major impediment to research
and reporting on the subject of childhood cruelty to animals is the lack of a clear
and standardised operational definition of animal cruelty (a point noted by a
number of researchers including Felthous & Kellert 1986; Miller & Knutson, 1997;
Agnew, 1998). Without such a foundation, it is impossible to accurately measure
the phenomenon, and develop a cohesive body of literature. In an effort to
overcome this barrier, several researchers (e.g., Ascione, 1993; Felthous & Kellert,
1987; Vermeulen & Odendaal, 1993) have proposed definitions of animal cruelty.
Definitions of Cruelty to Ani mals
The Oxford English Dictionary defines cruelty as, “... a disposition to inflict suffer-
ing; delight or indifference to another’s pain; merciless, hard-heartedness ...”.
Clearly this definition considers cruelty to be an enduring trait. Other definitions,
specific to animal cruelty have emphasised a more behavioural dimension. Felthous
and Kellert (1986) define “substantial cruelty to animals” as a “pattern of deliber-
ately, repeatedly, and unnecessarily hurting vertebrate animals in a manner likely to
cause serious injury” (p. 57). Brown (1988) and Vermeulen and Odendaal (1993)
defines animal cruelty as above but notes that it can occur through acts of commis-
sion and omission, that is, failing to provide care.
A number of consistent dimensions of cruelty are raised by the above defini-
tions. All definitions include a behavioural dimension (“inflicted”), whereby
behaviour is typically seen to include both acts of commission (e.g., beating a dog)
and omission (e.g., neglecting to provide adequate food or water). The majority
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DEVELOPMENTAL LINKS BETWEEN CRUELTY TO ANIMALS AND HUMAN VIOLENCE
THE AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF CRIMINOLOGY
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