‘Doesn’t anyone care anymore?’ – Bystander intervention to hate crime
| Published date | 01 January 2025 |
| DOI | http://doi.org/10.1177/02697580241271465 |
| Author | Maya Flax,Olivia Millband,Windy Grendele |
| Date | 01 January 2025 |
https://doi.org/10.1177/02697580241271465
International Review of Victimology
2025, Vol. 31(1) 3 –21
© The Author(s) 2024
Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/02697580241271465
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‘Doesn’t anyone care anymore?’ –
Bystander intervention to
hate crime
Maya Flax
University of West London, UK
Olivia Millband
University of West London, UK
Windy Grendele
Regent’s College London, UK
Abstract
While previous studies have focused on bystander intervention, current understanding specifically
in the area of bystander intervention to hate crime is limited. This study seeks to focus on
bystander intervention to hate crime in the United Kingdom. This study utilised 10 semi-structure
interviews with participants who had personally witnessed a hate crime incident, exploring reasons
for intervention, or lack thereof. Results revealed that for some who intervened, the decision to
do so often stemmed from an instinctive, impulsive place, whereas for others it was a calculative
decision-making process. The findings also reveal that there are various factors which influence
participants in deciding whether to intervene. Critically, while all factors were described as pivotal
to influencing participants in choosing whether to intervene or remain bystanders, there was no
hierarchy of factors which can be generalised. The study concludes that the decision to intervene
is a complex multi-faceted process and promotes awareness-raising about the various options
available when witnessing a hate crime.
Keywords
Risk assessment, seeking justice, willingness to rescue, response of victim, support
Corresponding author:
Maya Flax, School of Human and Social Sciences – Psychology, University of West London, Paragon House, Boston
Manor Road, Brentford TW8 9GA, UK.
Email: maya.flax@uwl.ac.uk
1271465IRV0010.1177/02697580241271465International Review of VictimologyFlax et al.
research-article2024
Article
4International Review of Victimology 31(1)
Introduction
A bystander is someone who witnesses a crime unfold but chooses not to intervene and support the
victim (Communities Inc Organisation, 2018). Current research shows that many people avoid giv-
ing assistance when witnessing crimes, particularly in public settings when other bystanders are
present (Darley and Latané, 1968). Exploring bystander responses to hate crime is important not
just with the aim of attempting to tackle social injustices but also because the reaction of bystand-
ers is significant in determining a victim’s psychological response to the crime (Rayburn et al.,
2003). Research shows that the psychological and emotional impacts of hate crime victims are
greater than non-hate crime offences (Iganski and Lagou, 2015). Being a victim of hate crime can
have long-lasting effects and can erode quality of life. This hurt is somewhat alleviated when vic-
tims feel supported through bystander intervention, with research showing that intervention has a
positive impact on the victims, whereas non-intervention heightens the ‘sense of humiliation and
isolation’ (Chakraborti et al., 2014: 82).
Bystanders
Despite Bentham (1789) being overly supportive of implementing a general duty to rescue, there
is no legal duty to intervene nor help another citizen in need within the United Kingdom. Bad
Samaritan Statutes are not in existence in the United Kingdom, and there is no legal expectation to
help another citizen in peril. This system is contrary to other countries such as Italy, France, and
Germany, who have established a legal duty to rescue another citizen. As Cicero (44 BC) wrote
over 2000 years ago:
One who does not defend against or prevent the occurrence of harm – if it is within his power to do so – is
in the wrong just as if he had deserted his parents, friends or country. (I.23)
Bystanders have a broad range of actions available to them, from reporting the incident, to express-
ing disapproval, to removing the victim from the vicinity, to directly confronting the perpetrator
and increasing the potential for personal risk. For example, research on sexual harassment has
shown that those witnessing may intervene in varied ways, such as reporting cases of witnessed
harassment, stopping an unfolding event, or providing negative feedback to harassers regarding
their behaviour (Bowes-Sperry and Powell, 1996, 1999). Bystanders often have the power to stop
the situation from escalating (Clarkson, 1996), but frequently fail to execute intervention. In most
instances, bystanders are the large majority, whereas rescuers are the exception.
One of the most widely cited frameworks of bystander intervention is known as the ‘Bystander
Effect’ proposed by Darley and Latané (1968). The central tenet of this model is that there is a
‘reduction in helping behaviour’ when a bystander is in the presence of other people (Latané and
Darley, 1968, 1970). This principle, known as diffusion of responsibility, (that the more people
there are in the vicinity the longer it would take for subjects to help) is widely recognised and
accepted throughout the literature on bystanders (Darley and Latané, 1968). Latané and Darley
(1970) outline two other psychological factors that are thought to facilitate bystander non-interven-
tion. These factors are the fear of unfavourable public judgement; and the belief that if no one else
is helping, then the situation must not be as serious as it may seem. When other witnesses are
present, the responsibility to intervene is thus ‘shared’ among all the bystanders. Subsequently, the
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