Exploring the impact of cyber and traditional crime victimization: Impact comparisons and explanatory factors
| Published date | 01 January 2025 |
| DOI | http://doi.org/10.1177/02697580241282782 |
| Author | Jildau Borwell,Jurjen Jansen,Wouter Stol |
| Date | 01 January 2025 |
https://doi.org/10.1177/02697580241282782
International Review of Victimology
2025, Vol. 31(1) 156 –181
© The Author(s) 2024
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DOI: 10.1177/02697580241282782
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Exploring the impact of
cyber and traditional crime
victimization: Impact
comparisons and explanatory
factors
Jildau Borwell
NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences, The Netherlands
Open University of the Netherlands, The Netherlands
Netherlands Police, The Netherlands
Jurjen Jansen
NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences, The Netherlands
Netherlands Police Academy, The Netherlands
Wouter Stol
NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences, The Netherlands
Open University of the Netherlands, The Netherlands
Netherlands Police Academy, The Netherlands
Abstract
As cybercrime victimization rates continue to rise, our understanding of their impact, especially
compared to traditional crime, remains limited. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted
surveys among 910 crime victims, measuring the impact of cyber and traditional variants of
property, person-centered, and sexual crime. We compared the impact of: (1) residential burglary
and hacking of online bank accounts; (2) doorstep deception and bank helpdesk fraud; (3) in-
person threats and online threats; and (4) sexual assault and image-based sexual abuse. Impact
was categorized into peritraumatic stress, internalizing problems, externalizing problems, financial
impact, and damaged self-image. Our findings reveal that cybercrime impact mostly equals or
exceeds that of traditional crimes. Disparities especially emerge in terms of higher peritraumatic
stress experienced by victims of cyber property crime, and more damage to self-image suffered
by victims of both cyber property and cyber sexual crimes. Furthermore, we identified significant
Corresponding author:
Jildau Borwell, NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences, NHL Stenden Hogeschool, Cybersafety, Rengerslaan 8,
8917 DD Leeuwarden, The Netherlands.
Email: jildau.borwell@ou.nl
1282782IRV0010.1177/02697580241282782International Review of Victimology X(X)Borwell et al.
research-article2024
Article
Borwell et al. 157
determinants of victim impact among crime characteristics, and social, personal, and demographic
factors, some varying between cyber and traditional crime. Our study emphasizes the implications
of the technological nature of cybercrime and the relatively active role played by cybercrime
victims, while also considering the issue of victim blaming. Furthermore, we underscore the need
for targeted victim support and prioritization of cybercrime.
Keywords
Victim impact, cybercrime, traditional crime, comparison, explanatory factors
Introduction
Background
The societal consequences of digitization have emerged as a popular academic topic in recent
years. Cybercrime is one of the most recognized negative consequences (Button et al., 2020;
Domenie et al., 2013; Reep-Van den Bergh and Junger, 2018; Wall, 2005). In the Netherlands,
cybercrime victimization rates stood at 16% in 2023, which is probably an underestimation
(Akkermans et al., 2024). With technology advancing rapidly, cybercrime victimization rates
are not expected to decline (Palassis et al., 2021). However, our understanding of the impact on
cybercrime victims remains incomplete (Button et al., 2021b). Furthermore, a comprehensive
comparative analysis of the impact of cybercrime and traditional crime is lacking (Borwell
et al., 2021a). Given the unique nature of cybercrimes, closer examinations and comparisons
are warranted.
Since the 1970s/1980s, there has been a notable shift toward recognizing victims alongside
offenders, prompting criminal justice reforms and increased support by victim assistance organiza-
tions (Janssen et al., 2021; Van der Vijver, 1993). This shift has fueled scholarly interest in under-
standing victims’ challenges (Janssen et al., 2021). However, understanding these challenges is a
complex and ongoing process, particularly in the area of cybercrime where research remains lim-
ited. The unique characteristics of cybercrime, including its technological nature, intangibility,
large scale, remoteness, permanence, anonymity, and global reach (Agustina, 2015; Gini et al.,
2018; Leukfeldt et al., 2018; Moitra, 2005; Nadim and Fladmoe, 2021; Stol, 2022; Wall, 2005;
Walrave and Van de Heyning, 2022), introduce new dimensions to victim experiences, necessitat-
ing further investigation. Comprehensive understanding of these experiences is essential for devel-
oping effective victim policies and support in our digitized society (Li et al., 2019).
Decades of research on the impact of traditional crime such as robbery, assault, and burglary has
provided insights into the physical, psychological, financial, and behavioral consequences experi-
enced by victims (Bonanno et al., 2011; Janssen et al., 2021; Lamet and Wittebrood, 2009; Mumtaz,
2019; Palassis et al., 2021; Shapland and Hall, 2007). Our understanding of the impact of cyber-
crime is comparatively limited (Jansen and Leukfeldt, 2018; Leukfeldt et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019;
Reep-Van den Bergh and Junger, 2018), despite its potential for severe harm. Prior studies indicate
parallels between cybercrime and traditional victim impact, including financial consequences, seri-
ous psychological damage and health implications (Button et al., 2020, 2021a; De Kimpe et al.,
2020; Kerr et al., 2013; Leukfeldt et al., 2018; Notté et al., 2021; Palassis et al., 2021). Victims
might experience feelings of violation when their digital space is invaded (Agustina, 2015; Kerr
et al., 2013; Van der Wagen and Pieters, 2018). Social disapproval and a lack of recognition from
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