Gang membership and rehabilitation: an exploration of narrative accounts from violent gang offenders in an English prison
| Date | 18 November 2024 |
| Pages | 68-83 |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.1108/JFP-04-2024-0017 |
| Published date | 18 November 2024 |
| Subject Matter | Health & social care,Criminology & forensic psychology,Forensic practice,Sociology,Sociology of crime & law,Law enforcement/correctional,Public policy & environmental management,Policing,Criminal justice |
| Author | Sarah Tonks,Zoe Stephenson |
Gang membership and rehabilitation: an
exploration of narrative accounts from
violent gang offenders in an English prison
Sarah Tonks and Zoe Stephenson
Abstract
Purpose –The majority of gang research has focussed primarily on American samples, with the
rehabilitativefield being no exception. Therefore, the purposeof this study was to expand the knowledge
base regarding the psychologyof gang membership by exploring the narrative accounts of convicted
streetgang members within an English and Welshprison sample.
Design/methodology/approach –Using semi-structured interviews with nine convicted male prisoners,
data were analysed, systematically coded and themes generated in line with the principles of themati c analysis.
Findings –Three major themesemerged which depicted how members viewedgang membership. The
first theme was around whatbeing a gang member meant to them and the organisation withinthe gang
(e.g. hierarchy and criminal activities). The second theme reflected their motivations for joining a gang
with reference to their identity and survival.Lastly, within the third theme, participants spoke about what
had motivated themto disengage from the gang, difficulties they faced becauseof disengagement, and
what theyfelt had helped them in the process of disengagement.
Practical implications –The study emphasisesthe importance of avoiding labels and promoting choice
as to how individuals refer to themselves, which can help remove stigma and strengthen professional
relationships as part of their risk management planning. Policymakers, practitioners and programme
developers are advisedto reflect on the word ‘‘gang’’ and how this may influence perceptionof risk and
contribute to bias in judgement. The study also provides insight into individuals experiences with
rehabilitation initiatives and the logistical challenges of being open with theirpeer group. Also supports
ideas on consideringhow to create opportunities to ensure those who wishto exit gangs can do so in a
safe, legitimate and durable way.Findings could assist in the design of early preventative measures for
those identified as beingat risk of joining a gang. Offering training to professionals in the communityon
how to identifyand communicate with those vulnerableto joining a gang may support this process.
Originality/value –Findings add to the limited yet growing evidence base in understanding the
psychologyof gang membership and helping to support the work undertakenwith this cohort.
Keywords Forensic, Disengagement, Desistance, Prison, Rehabilitation, Gang membership
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Gang members are deemed to inflict more violent behaviour than any other offender cohort
(Battin et al., 1998;Klein et al.,2006). Whilst much of the research in this area is from the
USA, less attention has been given to understanding and addressing gang related
offending, with the impact of gang activity being considerable within England and Welsh
communities (Bullock and Tilley, 2002;Shropshire and McFarquhar, 2002). The National
Youth Agency (2020) estimated how 60,000 young people (aged 10–17) identify as a gang
member or know a gang member within their family and friends and rises to 500,000 when
including groups of young people exposed to “risky behaviour” associated with gangs.
Therefore, there is increasing pressure on policy makers and practitioners working directly
Sarah Tonks is based at the
Department of
Psychological Services,
HM Prison and Probation
Service, Evesham, UK.
Zoe Stephenson is based
at the Department of
Psychology, University of
Birmingham, Birmingham,
UK.
Received 26 April 2024
Revised 1 July 2024
Accepted 23 July 2024
PAGE 68 jTHE JOURNAL OF FORENSIC PRACTICE jVOL. 27 NO. 1 2025, pp. 68-83, ©Emerald Publishing Limited, ISSN 2050-8794 DOI 10.1108/JFP-04-2024-0017
with this cohort to make decisions about how an individual should address their offending
behaviour (Skeem et al., 2000). This is key given violence and aggression have been
extensively explored as a means of understanding and addressing the rehabilitation of
offenders (Woessner and Schwedler, 2014). Yet, Jolliffe et al. (2017) outline how it is
important to distinguish betweendifferent types of offenders to tailor their rehabilitation.
Defining a street gang
Numerous definitions have attempted to explain gang phenomena (Brown, 2000;Hallsworth
and Young, 2004;Klein and Maxson, 2006). Yet phrases like “gang” and “gang member”
can mean different things to different people making a precise singular definition difficult
(Esbensen et al, 2001;Taylor, 2023;Tonks and Stephenson, 2019). The most widely cited
definition is the Eurogang definition (Weerman et al.,2009) who suggested that it is any
durable, street oriented youth group whose involvement in illegal activity is part of their
group identity. Yet, Aldridge et al. (2012) proposed that this may not be applicable after
following an English gang study where many members avoided the streets so as not to be
subjected to harassment or violence. This raises questions about whether a consensus
needs to be obtained, given that individuals do not always refer to themselves in this
manner (Fleisher and Decker, 2001). Importantly, Williams (2015) and Taylor (2023) also
raise how definitions can perpetuate bias and note that labelling can reinforce unhelpful
power dynamics. Taylor (2023) reflected on how a disproportionate number of Black and
Asian youths have been classified as “gang members” or having “gang related concern”,
when they were associating with peers of the same ethnicity. Some agencies within the
Ministry of Justice are now acknowledging the harmful consequences of using gang
terminology. Certainly, the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS, 2021) detail how labelling can
disproportionally affect minority ethic individuals and prosecutors should not use the term
unless evidence to support the assertion. Tonks and Stephenson (2019) questioned
whether labelling individuals as gang members and former gang members is helpful, with
Taylor (2023) concluding that it offers little to professionals who are trying to understand
those who offend as part of a group and perpetuates bias and racism.In contrast, gaining a
personal perspective from individuals and allowing individuals to self-identify as being
associated to a gang may bethe answer (Moore and Stuart, 2022).
Given the debate around a standard gang definition, a more encompassing definition was
applied; “self-formed association of peers, united by mutual interests, with identifiable
leadership and internal organisation, who act collectively or as individuals to achieve
specific purposes, including the conduct of illegal activity and control of a particular
territory, facility or enterprise”(Miller, 1992, p. 21).
Theories of gang membership
The purpose of this study is not to test a specifictheory of gang membership, but focus has
been given to the most current explanation in understanding gang membership; Wood and
Alleyne’s (2010) “Unified Theory of Gang Involvement”. This was developed through the
process of theory knitting which Ward and Hudson (1998) refer to as the process of
integrating the strengths from existing ideas into a new framework. Wood and Alleyne’s
theory consider how social factors (family bonds, schooling), individual characteristics
(psychopathy, IQ, mental health problems) and environmental factors (disorganised
neighbourhood and family structure) are the starting point for a youth’ssocial development.
These can have a causal relationship whereby a combination of any of these factors can
lead to gang membership. It is these factors,which will then influence the development of a
youth’s thought process about howthey perceive the world and those around them. If there
is a significant gang presence within the environment then it is more likely to shape an
individual’s attitudes and beliefs more favourably towards gang membership and reduce
their willingness to seek out legitimateopportunities.
VOL. 27 NO. 1 2025 jTHE JOURNAL OF FORENSIC PRACTICE jPAGE 69
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