Gender, Rootedness, Normative Beliefs and Emigration Intentions of Slovak University Students
| Published date | 01 August 2018 |
| Author | Marta Kulanová,Jozef Benka,Lucia Hricová,Oľga Orosová |
| Date | 01 August 2018 |
| DOI | http://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12441 |
Gender, Rootedness, Normative Beliefs and
Emigration Intentions of Slovak University
Students
Ol’ga Orosov
a*, Jozef Benka*, Lucia Hricov
a* and Marta Kulanov
a*
ABSTRACT
The aim of this article is to explore normative beliefs (descriptive, injunctive, personal, subjec-
tive), rootedness (desire for change, home/family satisfaction) and their interactions in relation
to emigration intentions among university students. Binary logistic regression was used to
analyse the data obtained from 375 Slovak university students (75.5% females, mean age 22.9,
SD=3.0). The analysis showed that personal normative beliefs and desire for change were sig-
nificantly positively associated with emigration intentions. A subjective normative belief about
friends, a descriptive normative belief about family, a descriptive normative belief about stu-
dents, and home/family satisfaction contributed to the probability of having emigration inten-
tions only among females. The interaction analysis showed that a lower level of a personal
normative belief among females and males, a descriptive normative belief about family among
females and a subjective normative belief about friends among females increased the probabil-
ity of not having emigration intentions, especially among those with a lower level of desire for
change. These findings could help to understand the possibilities for preventing ‘brain drain’,
especially regarding its psychological aspects.
INTRODUCTION
Migration is a worldwide phenomenon taking place in different contexts in different parts of the
world. It has an unarguable and significant impact on economics, politics and affected societies as
well as on individuals. International migration, which comes in many forms and is essentially
shaped by the specific circumstances in which it emerges, has been considered one of the main
challenges of our civilisation in this century. It is strongly intertwined with larger societal trends
such as globalization, which inevitably leads to a general increase in the number of migrating per-
sons, emergence of various new types of migration, feminization of migration and increases in the
significance of complex political reasons for migration. One of the important contexts which
deserves specific attention is the context of young and highly educated people (Van Dalen and
Henkens, 2008). While a broad interdisciplinary approach has an irreplaceable position in the
research of migration, each discipline can also contribute with a unique explorative angle of this
phenomenon by utilizing existing and well-established theories which can be applied to this phe-
nomenon. This study will narrow its focus to the role of gender and psychological factors, mainly
among the migrating university students in Slovakia.
Slovakia, like many other relatively well-developed countries, despite its significant economic
progress over the last decades, is considerably affected by the emigration of highly skilled
* Pavol Jozef Safarik University, Ko
sice
doi: 10.1111/imig.12441
©2018 The Authors
International Migration ©2018 IOM
International Migration Vol. 56 (4) 2018
ISS N 00 20- 7985 Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
individuals (Orosov
a & Gajdo
sov
a, 2017). According to some experts, this is even considered to
be one of the most important problems of the country (K
a
cerov
a & Horv
athov
a, 2014). Yet, migra-
tion is not new to Slovakia. Throughout its history, people from Slovakia often migrated to foreign
countries, but for different reasons. The largest emigration wave was recorded during the split of
Czechoslovakia when more than 11 000 people decided to leave. However, this was most probably
caused by circumstances specific to the historical context. Today’s numbers are considerably lower
but still seen as relatively high (K
a
cerov
a & Horv
athov
a, 2014). According to the Statistical Office
of the Slovak Republic (K
a
cerov
a and Horv
athov
a, 2014), 21.55 per cent of Slovak emigrants are
university students who most frequently leave for the Czech Republic, USA, Great Britain, Ger-
many and Austria.
The term ‘brain drain’is frequently used in this context, meaning a significant and economically
driven loss of the well-educated and highly skilled workforce (Bal
a
z, 2010; Battistella & Liao,
2013). However, brain drain has also been observed in developed countries, where economic differ-
ences are not the main reasons for making a decision to migrate (Bal
a
z, 2010; Benefader & den
Boer, 2006). In this case, ‘brain circulation’instead of ‘brain drain’might be more accurate. This
approach emphasizes the fact that people who leave their country and gain skills and develop
expertise in a particular profession abroad can bring these back home (Battistella & Liao, 2013).
For example, Slovak students who have returned from their study abroad usually report specific
competences gained during their stay abroad such as foreign language skills, inter-personal compe-
tence, international social networks and a broader view of the world (Bal
a
z & Williams, 2004).
From the existing psychological variables underlying the decision to leave, the intention to emi-
grate is the crucial aspect of the psychological process that needs to be studied. Migration inten-
tions have already been the subject of interdisciplinary research interest for researchers and
professionals specializing in various disciplines. In particular, this topic has been explored by econ-
omists (push and pull factors), sociologists (chain migration process), anthropologists (changes in
the standard of living and culture), psychologists (personality factors), political scientists (ethno-
political reasons) as well as in other interdisciplinary approaches (Valiuniene, 2016). The interdisci-
plinary exploration of migration intentions allows the consideration of determinants at both the
micro and the macro level. It also allows the identification of economic, social and cultural factors
of migration intentions as well as the implementation of interdisciplinary approaches by analysing
gains and losses related to migration (Fouarge & Ester, 2008; Ciarnien
e & Kumpikait€
e, 2008; Kot-
vanov
a, 2002).
While the reasons may be various, one important issue when considering migration decision-
making is the national context of the migrants. It can be hypothesised that migration can represent
a reaction of the students to unsatisfactory life conditions in their country (e.g. Mara & Landes-
mann, 2013). Therefore, students can choose mobility in order to improve their future domestic
and career prospects (Marcu, 2015). As Ackers (2005) says, the context of the studied nation, such
as the constantly changing situation in Europe, requires further exploration of national as well as
international policies. As an example, Ackers (2005) mentions Italy. It is one of the five most
important sending countries experiencing highly skilled migration (especially for studying abroad)
due to an insufficiently adapted Higher Education sector which is failing to attract the students and
scientists from abroad back home. In addition, it has been unsuccessful in implementing policy
strategies for attracting young educated people originally from different countries to Italy (such as
non-discrimination principles for the unemployed, or the mutual recognition of qualifications). In a
study by Marcu (2015), Romanian and Bulgarian students studying abroad mostly reported that
their national governments were not interested in their return and were not aware of any govern-
ment incentives to attract them back to their countries. Slovakia also has a great skilled potential
currently abroad, especially in the high number of students studying abroad. This can be for the
good of the country if they return and use their skills for the its improvement. However, according
to Kremsk
y (2015) about half the students from Slovakia who study abroad do not intend to return
Emigration intentions of Slovak University Students 173
©2018 The Authors. International Migration ©2018 IOM
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