Injuries and deaths proximate to oleoresin capsicum spray deployment: A literature review

Published date01 June 2021
AuthorCraig Bennell,Bryce Jenkins,Tori Semple
DOI10.1177/0032258X20926873
Date01 June 2021
Subject MatterArticles
Article
Injuries and deaths
proximate to oleoresin
capsicum spray deployment:
A literature review
Tori Semple , Bryce Jenkins and Craig Bennell
Department of Psychology, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada
Abstract
This literature review assessed research related to injuries and deaths proximate to
oleoresin capsicum (OC) spray deployment. Our review of 22 relevant documents
suggests that OC spray is often effective and is typically associated with decreased odds
of both subject and “deployer” injury. When OC-associated injuries do occur, they
consistently appear to be relatively minor. When OC spray is used proximate to a
subject’s death, common themes are present. Given the limitations of the research in
this area, one must be cautious when speaking to the nature of the relationship between
OC spray and injuries or deaths.
Keywords
Oleoresin capsicum spray, pepper spray, in-custody injuries, in-custody deaths
Introduction
Police officers are inevitably faced with people who pose a threat to themselves or to
others. Officers must therefore have access to effective intervention strategies to manage
these individuals and eliminate, or at least reduce, the harm they can cause. The use of
less-lethal intervention options is one approach for temporarily incapacitating violent
individuals while minimizing the risk of long-term consequences (Bertilsson et al.,
2017). Currently, police officers working in North America are equipped with various
less-lethal options, with oleoresin capsicum (OC) spray being a common tool found on
most officers’ duty belts (Canadian Police Research Centre, 2004; Gabor, 2009; Reaves,
Corresponding author:
Tori Semple, Department of Psychology, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada.
Email: tori.semple@carleton.ca
The Police Journal:
Theory, Practice and Principles
2021, Vol. 94(2) 184–205
ªThe Author(s) 2020
Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/0032258X20926873
journals.sagepub.com/home/pjx
2010). While rates of OC spray deployments v ary substantially from jurisdiction to
jurisdiction (Hall and Votova, 2013; Wittmann, 2018), it appears to be a frequently used
intervention option in some sites (e.g. MacDonald et al., 2009).
What is OC spray?
OC spray is generally considered a less-lethal weapon that is used by officers as a pain
compliance technique to control subjects who are being actively resistant, assaultive, or
threatening grievous bodily harm to themselves, a member of the public, or the officer
(Kiedrowski et al., 2015). OC spray contains the active ingredient oleoresin capsicum
(Yeung and Tang, 2015), which can be produced synthetically, but is also a naturally
occurring substance found in peppers (National Institute of Justice (NIJ), 1994). OC
relates to a group of compounds known as capsaicinoids. There are five different types of
capsaicinoids that have the same base structure but vary slightly in ways that alter their
individual effects. The two most powerful capsaicinoids are capsaicin and dihydrocap-
saicin, which typically account for 80–90%of the total OC spray concentration (Smith
and Greaves, 2002). Typically, OC sprays range from 1%to 15%in concentration, with
law enforcement agencies typically relying on sprays with higher concentrations than
those sold commercially (e.g. for self-defence; Vilke and Chan, 2007).
OC spray typically acts on sensory nerves in the periphery of the body, the respiratory
tract, and the skin (Toprak et al., 2015). OC spray has both direct irritant and neurogenic
inflammatory effects (Smith and Stopford, 1999). Neurogenic inflammation specifically
results from the spray’s action on peripheral neurons, which triggers the release of a
neurotransmitter that causes dilation of blood vessels and a severe sensation of pain
(Smith and Greaves, 2002). The effects of OC spray are thought to be instantaneous and
short-term, primarily causing irritation to the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes (Vilke
and Chan, 2007). Exposure to the respiratory tract can also cause tingling, coughing,
gagging, shortness of breath, and temporary paralysis to the larynx (i.e. voice box;
Steffee et al., 1995).
Factors influencing the effectiveness of OC spray
Various factors contribute to the effectiveness of OC spray (Yeung and Tang, 2015).
Some of these factors relate to the spray itself. For example, concentrations of OC spray
vary greatly and this can influence the consequences of being sprayed (Haas et al., 1997).
Furthermore, other substances included in the spray (e.g. carbon dioxide, nitrogen,
isobutene) that act as propellants for dispersing the chemical can potentially produce
adverse cardiac, respiratory, and/or neurologic effects (Smith and Stopford, 1999).
Additional factors, such as the device that is used to deploy the spray, can influence the
size of the dispersed particles, which in turn affects their ability to penetrate the mem-
branes and airways of the subject (Yeung and Tang, 2015). Depending on the mode of
deployment (e.g. cone, fog, or stream pattern) the maximum effective range and preci-
sion of OC spray can also vary (Heal et al., 2010).
Environmental and subject factors have also been demonstrated to influence the
effectiveness of OC spray, alone or in combination with the factors outlined above.
Semple et al. 185

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