Migration, resettlement and integration of survivors of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi in Rwanda in Canada: A community‐based study
| Published date | 01 February 2023 |
| Author | Sophie Yohani,Linda Kreitzer |
| Date | 01 February 2023 |
| DOI | http://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12920 |
International Migration. 2023;61:39–54.
|
39
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/imig
INTRODUCTION
In 1994, a genocide took pla ce in Rwanda in which more than one m illion men, women and children w ere killed,
and 1.75 million peopl e fled the country as refugees (M eredith, 2005). Since this time, t he number of Rwandan
immigrants to ot her nations has lessen ed; however, migration continues , in part, through f amily reunificatio n pro-
cesses and refug ee claims. As of 2016, nearly 80 00 Rwandans had immi grated to Canada, most of wh om arrived
Received: 9 Novem ber 2020
|
Revised: 9 July 2021
|
Accepted: 25 July 20 21
DOI: 10 .1111/imig .12920
SPECIAL ISSUE ARTICLE
Migration, resettlement and integration of
survivors of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi in
Rwanda in Canada: A community- based study
Sophie Yohani1| Linda Kreitzer2
© 2021 The Author s. Internationa l Migration © 2021 IOM
1Department of Educational Psychology,
Universit y of Alberta, Edm onton, AB,
Canada
2Faculty of Soci al Work, Universit y of
Calgary, Ca lgary, AB, Canad a
Correspondence
Sophie Yohani, Department of Educational
Psycholog y, University of Albe rta, 6- 107D
Education No rth, Edmonton, A B, Canada,
T6G 2 G5.
Email: sophie.yohani@ualberta.ca
Funding information
PolicyWis e for Children and Famil ies.
Abstract
This article de scribes the migration, reset tlement and inte-
gration challenges a nd strengths of member s of the African
Diaspora in Canada who identify as survivors of the 1994
genocide against t he Tutsi of Rwanda. Data were generated
from semi- structured interviews with 16 adult community
members and a thematic analysis conducted inductively
and collectively with the research team consisting of aca-
demics and representative community members. This ar-
ticle provides insights into the unique long- term impacts
of genocide on migration, resettlement and community-
level functioning for this group of African migrants living
in a mid- Western city in Canada. Results highlight how
Canadian immigration policies limit migration options and
prevent family reunif ication for migrants with none or few
remaining family members and the associated resettlement
challenges experienced by this group. Results also show
the vital role the Rwandan Diaspora community, and par-
ticularly other survivors, play in supporting resettlement,
integration and overal l well- being of genocide survivor s.
40
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YOHANI ANd K REITZER
after 1994 (Marson, 2016). Many histori cal factors have come into p lay that has fuelled the vi olence seen in many
genocides. The idea of resettlement and even healing after genocide is multi- dimensional and complex. However,
finding truth, justice and healing processes are now seen as a fundamental part of recovery and peacebuilding
(Richters et al. , 2005). Rwandans in post- genocide R wanda have had opportunitie s to engage in nationwide and
community- level healing pro cesses. In contrast, Rwan dans who did not partake in repat riation have not had the
same chance to be invo lved in national- leve l healing processes. Th is article describes t he migration, resett lement
and integration c hallenges and streng ths of members of the Afr ican Diaspora in Can ada who identify as sur vivors
of the 1994 genocide again st the Tutsi of Rwanda living in a Mid- Western city in Ca nada. The results share d are
part of a larger collaborative community- based participatory research project between a unique community of
survivors of t he genocide against Tutsi in Rwa nda (i.e. the Memory Keep ers Association (MK A), the University of
Calgary an d the University of Albe rta) exploring ment al health challenges, s trengths and resilien cy in this African
migrant group.
Background
Africans are t he second fastest g rowing immigrant pop ulation in Canada a nd currently account f or 13.4% of recent
immigrants (Statistics Canada, 2017). Yet, Africans are highly diverse with multiple nations, cultures, languages
and histories re presented in this newe r Canadian communi ty. One such group are immi grants from Rwand a whose
estimated num bers ranged betwe en 5,600 and 7,700 in 2014 (Office of th e United Nations High Com missioner of
Refugees (UNHCR ), 2014 as cited by Marson, 2018).
The Rwandan diaspora in Canada consist of a fair number of adult genocide survivors of the 1994 geno-
cide against Tutsi of Rw anda, with communities es timating the majority ar e approximately between age s 30 and
40 years. The s pecific numbers of Rwanda n Canadians are difficul t to establish due to the lack of dis aggregated
census data on Afr icans and communit y- level dat a. However, anecdotal infor mation suggests t hat there are young
and middle- aged adults who were children during the genocide. Research suggests that they likely had direct
exposure to tra uma and losses reflected i n studies with children in Rw anda – including bei ng left to head house-
holds, witne ssing people and fami ly members killed an d witnessing rape (Dy regrov et al., 2000; Neugebauer et al .,
2009; Schaal & Elbe rt, 2006). The impac ts of genocidal trau ma were documented in th e aftermath of the gen ocide
and in follow- up s tudies. For example, resea rch on a sample of 1547 young genocide sur vivors in 1995 showed
that approximate ly 95% reported avoidance and r e- experie ncing symptoms associa ted with post- trau matic stress
disorder (PTSD) (Neugebauer et al., 2009). Likewise, a study involving inter views with 68 orphans 10 years af ter
the genocide in dicated that 44% met the ful l criteria for diagnosing PTS D (Schaal & Elbert, 2006). An other study
of ethnic identit y in youth in Kigali conclu ded that war had impacted yo ung Rwandans’ trust of othe rs, especially
those in anothe r ethnic group (Hilker, 2009). Althou gh the limited research on t he Rwandan diaspora ha s focused
on perceptions and relationships with the homeland government (Marson, 2018; Shindo, 2012; Turner, 2013),
more recent studies examine the unique experiences of genocide survivors, such as memorializing loved ones
(Orjuela, 2020) and impacts of genocidal rape (Banyanga, Björkqvist, & Österman, 2017). Increasing an under-
standing of mig ration, settlement and inte gration and how genocide impac ts these migration exper iences could
determine essential questions and interventions for Rwandan Canadians and other groups with exposure to
pre- migr ation trauma. The migrat ion process is generally st ressful for refugees seek ing asylum in new countries.
Support fro m community and famil y is critical in buffer ing these migration and s ettlement stress ors (Simich et al.,
2003). Existin g research on African mig rants in Canada ident ifies the lack of social supp orts as a barrier af fecting
settlement a nd integration processe s, yet transnational ties to h ome countries can ser ve as positive mediator for
some groups (Okeke- Ihejirika et al., 2020). Gen ocide survivors in Cana da face additional challeng es because the
Immigration an d Refugee Protection Re gulations (IRPR) (20 01) base their policies o n a Western- s tyle nuclear fam-
ily, namely spouse s and children, and fa ils to account for the uniqu e experiences of geno cide survivors, su ch as the
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