‘My trust in strangers has disappeared completely’: How hate crime, perceived risk, and the concealment of sexual orientation affect fear of crime among Swedish LGBTQ students
| Published date | 01 January 2025 |
| DOI | http://doi.org/10.1177/02697580241271464 |
| Author | Paul Baschar Ilse,Mika Hagerlid |
| Date | 01 January 2025 |
https://doi.org/10.1177/02697580241271464
International Review of Victimology
2025, Vol. 31(1) 39 –58
© The Author(s) 2024
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DOI: 10.1177/02697580241271464
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‘My trust in strangers has
disappeared completely’:
How hate crime, perceived
risk, and the concealment of
sexual orientation affect fear of
crime among Swedish LGBTQ
students
Paul Baschar Ilse
Malmö University, Sweden
Mika Hagerlid
Malmö University, Sweden
Abstract
Previous research has established correlations between anti-LGBTQ hate crime, fear of crime,
perceived victimization risk, and the concealment of sexual orientation. Aside from correlations,
the relationships between these variables remain poorly understood. Therefore, the aim of the
present study is to explore the relationships between anti-LGBTQ hate crime, perceived risk, and
the concealment of sexual orientation in relation to fear of crime. Based on previous research and
theory, the authors hypothesize (1) that experiences of hate crime victimization increase fear of
crime, perceived victimization risk, and the concealment of sexual orientation; (2) that high levels
of perceived risk result in high fear of crime and a more prevalent concealment of orientation; and
(3) that the concealment of sexual orientation results in lower fear of crime. The sample consists
of LGBTQ students enrolled at a Swedish university. The study uses a mixed method approach,
combining survey data (N= 353) and interview data (N= 10). The data are assessed using path
analysis and thematic analysis. The path analysis supported the authors’ hypothesis regarding
experiences of anti-LGBT hate crime, perceived risk, and fear of crime. The qualitative analysis
showed that victims of hate crimes had a reduced ability to process negative emotions because
they experienced other traumatic life events parallel to the victimization. Similarly, feelings
of being reduced to a negative stereotype resulted in higher levels of both fear of crime and
Corresponding author:
Mika Hagerlid, Department of Criminology, Malmö University, Jan Waldenströms gata 25, Malmö 214 28, Sweden.
Email: mika.hagerlid@mau.se
1271464IRV0010.1177/02697580241271464International Review of Victimology X(X)Ilse and Hagerlid
research-article2024
Article
40International Review of Victimology 31(1)
perceived risk. Finally, the path analysis rejected the hypothesis that the concealment of sexual
orientation results in lower fear of crime. Rather than being an agency-driven and functional fear
response, the interview data showed that while these practices reduced victimization risk, they
negatively impacted the overall health of the participants through feelings of lack of authenticity
and self-censorship.
Keywords
Hate crime, fear of crime, functional fear, perceived risk, anti-LGBTQ hate crime
Introduction
Fear of crime is at the forefront of victimological research but remains understudied in relation to
hate crime against LGBTQ people. Fear of crime has wide-ranging consequences, including dam-
age to psychological well-being on an individual level and reduction in collective trust and cohe-
sion. Those are in turn linked to populist politics and harsh policies (Skogan, 1986; Stafford et al.,
2007). Previous research has established correlations between anti-LGBTQ hate crime, fear of
crime, and perceived victimization risk (Doude and Cook, 2023; Herek et al., 1999; Meyer and
Grollman, 2014; Otis, 2007; Tiby, 1999). However, aside from correlations, the relationships
between these variables remain poorly understood. Qualitative interview studies with LGBTQ
people have repeatedly shown that perceptions of victimization risk are often intimately linked to
visibility and practices of identity concealment (Meyer, 2010; Perry and Dyck, 2014; Tiby, 1999).
Perceived risk of victimization among LGBTQ people and its links to practices of identity conceal-
ment has not been explored in quantitative research.
The overall aim of the present study is thus to explore the relationships between anti-LGBTQ
hate crime, perceived risk, and the concealment of sexual orientation in relation to fear of crime.
We will utilize a combination of quantitative and qualitative analysis (Hall and Howard, 2008)
using a sample of Swedish LGBTQ students. The study thereby makes an important contribution
to the field by developing and assessing measures that more adequately correspond to how fear of
crime is lived and experienced by LGTBQ people.
Literature review
Key concepts in fear of crime
Individual fear of crime is broadly defined as the frequency and intensity at which the individual
worries about falling victim to a crime (Newburn, 2017). This worry can be specific to crime types
(e.g. burglary) or crime in general, although the measures of intensity are considered less accurate
for research purposes (ibid.).
Recent studies differentiate between the concepts ‘perceived risk of victimization’ and ‘fear of
future victimization’. Perceived risk is predictive of fear of future victimization and generally
moderates the relationship between established predictor variables and fear of crime (Collins,
2016; Otis, 2007). For example, Otis (2007) found that predictors of fear of crime lost their signifi-
cant effect in regression models when perceived risk was included but were significantly correlated
with perceived risk itself, suggesting that the effects of the predictors are of an indirect nature.
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