A review of the time management literature
| Published date | 13 February 2007 |
| Date | 13 February 2007 |
| Pages | 255-276 |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.1108/00483480710726136 |
| Author | Brigitte J.C. Claessens,Wendelien van Eerde,Christel G. Rutte,Robert A. Roe |
| Subject Matter | HR & organizational behaviour |
A review of the time management
literature
Brigitte J.C. Claessens, Wendelien van Eerde and Christel G. Rutte
Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Eindhoven, The Netherlands, and
Robert A. Roe
Universiteit Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this article is to provide an overview for those interested in the current
state-of-the-art in time management research.
Design/methodology/approach – This review includes 32 empirical studies on time management
conducted between 1982 and 2004.
Findings – The review demonstrates that time management behaviours relate positively to
perceived control of time, job satisfaction, and health, and negatively to stress. The relationship with
work and academic performance is not clear. Time management training seems to enhance time
management skills, but this does not automatically transfer to better performance.
Research limitations/implications – The reviewed research displays several limitations. First,
time management has been defined and operationalised in a variety of ways. Some instruments were
not reliable or valid, which could account for unstable findings. Second, many of the studies were
based on cross-sectional surveys and used self-reports only. Third, very little attention was given to
job and organizational factors. There is a need for more rigorous research into the mechanisms of time
management and the factors that contribute to its effectiveness. The ways in which stable time
management behaviours can be established also deserves further investigation.
Practical implications – This review makes clear which effects may be expected of time
management, which aspects may be most useful for which individuals, and which work characteristics
would enhance or hinder positive effects. Its outcomes may help to develop more effective time
management practices.
Originality/value – This review is the first to offer an overview of empirical research on time
management. Both practice and scientific research may benefit from the description of previous
attempts to measure and test the popular notions of time management.
Keywords Time measurement,Training, Control, Job satisfaction,Performance management
Paper type Literature review
During the last two decades, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of
time in the organizational literature. According to Orlikowsky and Yates (2002), the
temporal dimension of work has become more important because of expanding global
competition and increased demands for immediate availability of products and
services. Garhammer (2002) has pointed at the increased pace of life shown in doing
things faster (acceleration), contracting time expenditure (e.g. eat faster, sleep less), and
compressing actions (making a phone call while having lunch). Other studies have
examined the perception of time in organizational contexts (e.g. Palmer and
Schoorman, 1999) and the experience of time pressure among employees (e.g. Jackson
and Martin, 1996; Major et al., 2002; Teuchmann et al., 1999).
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
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Time
management
literature
255
Received 4 July 2004
Revised 13 October 2004
Accepted 15 December 2005
Personnel Review
Vol. 36 No. 2, 2007
pp. 255-276
qEmerald Group Publishing Limited
0048-3486
DOI 10.1108/00483480710726136
The increasing salience of time is reflected in theoretical as well as practical
publications. A number of authors discussed the need for better incorporating time in
theoretical models and research designs (e.g. Ancona et al., 2001; George and Jones,
2000; Wright, 2002). Others focused on the ways in which people in organizations
manage their time, and on ways in which these efforts can be improved (e.g. Macan,
1994). In this article we will address time from the second perspective, and review the
empirical studies on time management. More specifically, we will review definitions of
time management, discuss methods for studying time management, summarize
empirical findings on time management and the use and effectiveness of time
management methods, identify gaps in the current research literature, and give
suggestions for future research.
The interest in time management is by no means new. The problem of how to
manage time was already discussed in the 1950s and 1960s, and several authors
proposed methods on how to handle time issues on the job (e.g. Drucker, 1967; Lakein,
1973; Mackenzie, 1972; McCay, 1959). They suggested simple remedies such as writing
work plans down on paper (so-called “to-do lists”) in order to increase job performance.
At the same time, some authors (e.g. Drucker, 1967) recognized that planning tasks and
activities does not always lead to the completion of planned work, especially when time
pressure is high.
McCay (1959) developed a concept for a time-management training program, which
is still being used. Critical elements are: giving insight into time-consuming activ ities,
changing time expenditure, and increasing workday efficiency by teaching people how
to make a daily planning, how to prioritise tasks, and how to handle unexpected tasks.
Many books and articles were written to convey these and similar ideas to managers,
promising them a greater effectiveness while using less time (e.g. Blanchard and
Johnson, 1982). Over the years the focus of time management publications and training
courses has shifted from managers as the major target group to a broad audience of
working people. The term “time management” is actually misleading. Strictly
speaking, time cannot be managed, because it is an inaccessible factor. Only the way a
person deals with time can be influenced. Time management can be viewed as a way of
monitoring and controlling time (e.g. Eilam and Aharon, 2003). In this regard, it would
be more appropriate to speak about self-management with regard to the performance
of multiple tasks within a certain time period. But in the literature, the term
self-management has a different meaning. It refers to monitoring and regulating
oneself, but without any specific reference to techniques for monitoring time use.
Therefore, we will stick to the use of the term time management in the present paper.
In spite of all popular attention to managing time, relatively little research has been
conducted on the processes involved in using one’s time effectively (e.g. by using
“prime time” to carry out important tasks) and completing work within deadlines. In
1987, a review was published that addressed the increasing popularity of time
management (Richards, 1987). It discussed the principles mentioned by authors like
McCay (1959) and concluded that, for instance, setting life goals and keeping time logs
were important techniques for effectively managing one’s time. Although this article
was helpful in understanding the ideas behind the notion of time management, it was
not a review of empirical time management studies. In fact, to our knowledge, no
reviews of empirical research of time management have been published since the
article by Richards (1987). Therefore, the first aim of the present study is to review past
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