Risk factors in adolescents’ involvement in violent behaviours
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.1108/JACPR-09-2013-0025 |
| Date | 12 January 2015 |
| Published date | 12 January 2015 |
| Pages | 2-18 |
| Author | Sarah Baxendale,Leanne Lester,Robyn Johnston,Donna Cross |
| Subject Matter | Health & social care,Criminology & forensic psychology,Aggression, conflict & peace |
Risk factors in adolescents’ involvement
in violent behaviours
Sarah Baxendale, Leanne Lester, Robyn Johnston and Donna Cross
Sarah Baxendale is a Senior
Project Officer, based at Child
Health Promotion Research
Centre, School of Exercise and
Health Sciences, Edith Cowan
University, Mount Lawley,
Australia.
Leanne Lester is an Associate
Professor, based at Health
Promotion Evaluation Unit,
School of Sports Science,
Exercise and Health, University
of Western Australia, Crawley,
Australia.
Dr Robyn Johnston is a
Research Fellow, based at
Child Health Promotion
Research Centre, School of
Exercise and Health Sciences,
Edith Cowan University, Mount
Lawley, Australia.
Donna Cross is a Professor,
based at Child Health
Promotion Research Centre,
School of Exercise and Health
Sciences, Edith Cowan
University, Mount Lawley,
Australia and Telethon Institute
for Child Health Research,
Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry
and Health Sciences,
University of Western Australia,
Subiaco, Australia.
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine risk factors associated with Western Australian
secondary school students’ involvement in violence-related behaviours.
Design/methodology/approach – This cross-sectional study examined data collected using an
anonymous self-completion questionnaire from 542 school students aged 13-17 years. The questionnaire
measured risk factors associated with being a perpetrator and/or victim of violence-related
behaviours.
Findings – Gender was significantly associated with being a victim and perpetrator of violence-related
behaviours. Males were significantly more likely than females to be a victim of threatening and physical
violence at school, and to be a perpetrator of physical violence at school and in the community.Males were
significantly more likely than females to watch violent media, with exposure to violent media associated with
physically hurting someone at school. Students involved in greater acts of animal cruelty had increased
odds of being involved in all forms of the violence measured.
Research limitations/implications – Limitations such as the cross-sectional nature of the study and the
small sample size are noted, along with suggestions for future research.
Practical implications – Implications of the research for practitioners working with adolescents, with
a particular focus on the school setting, are discussed.
Originality/value – Most previously published research on adolescent involvement in violence has been
conducted outside Australia, and as such, may not be directly applicable to the experiences of young people in
Western Australia.
Keywords Australia, Community, School, Violence, Home, Adolescent
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Adolescence is referred to as the developmental period from childhood to adulthood
(Adolescent Health Committee, 2003) where neurological (Hemphill and Smith, 2010),
biological and physical changes (Cooper et al., 2003) are experienced. Relationship patterns
may alter during adolescence with increased involvement in peer rather than family activities
(Toturaet al., 2009), which may increase the potential risk for antisocial behaviour (Hemphill and
Smith, 2010). Violence and substance use are examples of antisocial behaviours that may
commence or increase during adolescence and which pose significant threats to health and
well-being both in the immediate and long-term future (Li et al., 2011).
Worldwide, an estimated 500 adolescents die as a result of interpersonal violence every day
and many more are injured (Global Health Council, 2011). Involvement in violence may
profoundly impact on young people’shealthy physical and emotional development(Mercy et al.,
2003). Young people who are targets of violence are also at a much higher risk of perpetrating
violence, with adolescents experiencing the highest levels of both victimisation and perpetration
(Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2011).
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VOL. 7 NO. 1 2015, pp. 2-18, CEmerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1759-6599 DOI 10.1108/JACPR-09-2013-0025
Theoretical frameworks
A range of different theories assist in understanding the etiology of violence. Two theories often
cited in the literature are the Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986) and the Developmental
Pathways Framework (Dahlberg and Simon, 2006). The Social Cognitive Theory emphasises
a reciprocal interaction between behaviour, personal factors and environmental events
(Bandura, 1986). This interaction involves behaviours being learned either directly or indirectly
through observational learning (Totura et al., 2009). Within the reciprocal interaction, young
people need to be able to analyse poor behaviour models, or be in an environment which
promotes and models socially acceptable behaviour (Boxer et al., 2005) to exhibit prosocial
behaviours. In the potential development of aggressive behaviour, the Social Cognitive Theory
focuses on three influential sources: the family, subcultural and symbolic modelling (Ribes-Inesta
and Bandura, 1976). Subcultural influences refers to the area where individuals reside, whilst
symbolic modelling refers to pictures, words and the mass media (Ribes-Inesta and Bandura,
1976). Television is identified as being of particular importance for symbolic modelling given its
wide accessibility and vivid portrayal of behaviours, such as violence.
The Developmental Pathways Framework addresses different developmental pathways that
may lead to aggression and violence (Loeber and Hay, 1997). Moffitt (1993) proposestwo types
of delinquent trajectories: life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited. The latter trajectory
occurs as a result of peer and social environmental factors and is therefore often transitory and
situation dependent. The life-course-persistent trajectory, however,originates in early childhood
due to neuropsychological, personality and environmental risk factors (Moffitt, 1993).
Risk factors
While different theories, such as those described above, can be used to explain why some
individuals engage in violent behaviours and others do not, risk factors that encompass the
individual, relationship and community domains appear to increase the likelihood of involvement
in violent behaviour (Herrenkohl et al., 2012). Four risk factors that encompass individual,
relationship and community, are gender, exposure to violent media, exposure to violence and
animal cruelty.
Male gender is an important risk factor for young people’sinvolvement in violence (Davidson and
Canivez, 2012; Reingle et al., 2013; Ward and Ashley, 2013). Not only does gender impact on
whether an individual will be involved in violence, but also on the type of violence experienced.
Many studies have found differences in the types of aggression used by males and females
during childhood and adolescence (Hess and Hagen, 2006), with males more often than females
using direct physical aggression (Pickett et al., 2013). Gender may also be interrelated with other
risk factors for youth violence (Yonas et al., 2005; Josephson and Proulx, 2008): research that
examines the interaction effects of gender with other factors will enable a better understanding of
the role gender plays in adolescents’ involvement in violence (Amstadter et al., 2011).
Violence in the media also appears to impact on involvement in aggressive and violent behaviour
(Boxer et al., 2009; Vidal et al., 2003). As with other risk factors, not every young person exposed
to violent media will act violently (Kuntsche et al., 2006). In addition to television and movies, this
violent media also includes video games. Exposure to violent video games has been positively
associated with increased levels of aggression for children (Browne and Hamilton-Giachritsis,
2005; Olson et al., 2007; Schmierbach, 2010). It has been suggested the active nature of video
games makes them unique among the screen-based media, given video game players actually
participate in the games’ actions, rather than just being passive observers (Funk et al., 2004;
Schmierbach, 2010). To be successful at the video game, players choose violent strategies and
they are rewarded for successful violent behaviour. Violence is presented as justified and fun
(Cantor, 2000). This may therefore be seen as subtle desensitisation to violence.
Exposure to violence in-person has also been associated with an increased risk for perpetration
of aggressive and violent behaviour (Bingenheimer et al., 2005; Shields et al., 2009). The earlier
a child is exposed to violence, the greater the risk of long-term consequences (Edwards et al.,
2005). In the school setting, ex posure to violence is associa ted with lower school
connectedness, school avoidance and an increase in aggression (Janosz et al., 2008).
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