The effects of military-connected parental absence on the behavioural and academic functioning of children: a literature review

Published date21 September 2015
DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1108/JCS-05-2015-0017
Pages291-306
Date21 September 2015
AuthorJeremy D. Moeller,Erica D. Culler,Mallori D. Hamilton,Keith R. Aronson,Daniel F. Perkins
Subject MatterHealth & social care,Vulnerable groups,Children's services
The effects of military-connected parental
absence on the behavioural and academic
functioning of children: a literature review
Jeremy D. Moeller, Erica D. Culler, Mallori D. Hamilton, Keith R. Aronson and Daniel F. Perkins
Jeremy D. Moeller,
Dr Erica D. Culler,
Mallori D. Hamilton,
Dr Keith R. Aronson and
Dr Daniel F. Perkins, are all
based at the Pennsylvania
State University, University
Park, Pennsylvania, USA.
Abstract
Purpose Military-connected students experience a high rate of parental absence due to their parents
military obligations. Military work-related parental absences can affect school-aged childrens emotional and
behavioural health and overall academic functioning. The paper aims to discuss this issue.
Design/methodology/approach The current review identified research studies that explored the effects
of military-connected parental absence on school-aged children. Specifically, quantitative and qualitative
research studies that examine the impact of military parental absences on dependent variables related to
internalising and externalising behaviours and academic functioning were of interest. In all, 26 studies were
identified for inclusion in the review.
Findings Overall, military-connected students who experience a parental absence due to military service
are more likely to exhibit an increase in problem behaviours and a decrease in academic functioning
compared to civilian peers or military-connected peers who were not experiencing parental absence.
Originality/value The current review elucidates parental absence within the military context, highlighting
key factors that may contribute to increased and decreased behavioural and academic functioning of
military-connected students. Results from the review in relation to risk and protective factors for military-connected
students, future research and school programming directions are discussed.
Keywords Literature review, Academic functioning, Behavioural functioning, Military families,
Military-connected students, Parental absence
Paper type Literature review
Introduction
Parental absence occurs in a number of contexts (e.g. divorce, incarceration and civilian and military
occupations) and can influence children in a myriad of ways. Each family member and family unit
can react differently to the absence of a parent depending on factors such as the reason for the
absence, child temperament, familial structure and parental well-being. However, many families
experience difficulties with separation and draw from common resources within their community.
Recent evidence suggests that employment which involves long separations from family is
particularly concerning for healthy family functioning because the separations result in ongoing
challenges during the absence and upon reunification, particularly with regard to role confusion
(Orthner and Rose, 2009; Zvonkovic et al., 2005). In otherwords, parents coming andleaving and
the constantrole shifts of familymembers can upset familybalance. Once out of balance, individual
family members and the family as a whole can experience a high degree of stress.
The Global War on Terror (GWOT), which commenced in 2001, includes Operation Iraqi
Freedom (OIF) and Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF). OIF and OEF substantially increased
Received 6 May 2015
Revised 10 June 2015
Accepted 19 June 2015
DOI 10.1108/JCS-05-2015-0017 VOL. 10 NO. 3 2015, pp. 291-306, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 1746-6660
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military operational tempo and, subsequently, the need for military Service Members to be away
from their families on numerous occasions and for long periods of time. Due to increases in
Service Member deployments, understanding the effects of parental absence due to military
separations for children, youth and families is important. A large portion of the existing research
on parental absence centres on divorce, legal separation and incarceration. While research
in these contexts may provide some insight into the potential range of adjustment outcomes in
children when a parent is absent for short or extended periods of time, it does not investigate the
unique factors related to military life. Thus, military family-specific contextual factors need to be
examined to inform programming and policy directed towards these families.
Changing demographics and deployment cycles in the US armed forces
Over the last 20 years, the military has required significant sacrifices from children, youth,
military spouses and families. This demand on families contrasts greatly with previous conflicts
in which the majority of individuals sent to war in combat roles were single, male draftees
without dependents (Tanielian and Jaycox, 2008). A primarily single male force was the norm
until the Gulf War in the early 1990s. During this conflict, a large number of married Service
Members deployed and left spouses and children behind. Following the 11th September,
attack in New York, Service Members faced increasingly lengthy combat deployments and
more female Service Members were deployed than ever before (Department of Defense,
2010). In OIF and OEF, 47 per cent of active duty parents with children had deployed at least
once, and 63 per cent of Reserve Component Service Members with children had been
deployed (Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense, 2012). National Guard and
Reserve members have played an unprecedented role in the GWOT, and comprise a large
percentage of combat-deployed individuals. Because National Guard and Reserve members
and their families are typically geographically isolated, rather than located on or near a military
base or community, many families have to cope with the deployment of a family member
without formal supports or resources.
All branches of the US military deploy their Service Members for various reasons during war and
peacetime. There are two primary types of deployments that military Service Members
experience during their careers. Normative/routine deployments are non-combat related. These
can include temporary duty assignments and extended training exercises. Combat/combat
support deployments are made to hot spotsacross the globe where fighting takes place
(Department of Defense, 2010). One should note that each of the Service Branches has differing
deployment schedules.
The Marine Corps, which is considered the quick reaction force of the military, is highly
deployable. It has multiple Marine Expeditionary Units (MEUs). MEUs train for six months before
being deployed on a Navy ship to conduct a range of missions (US Marine Corps, 2013). Navy
families consistently face separation from their Service Members due to ship or submarine duty.
According to Sea Legs: A Handbook for Navy Life and Services (2013), a significant component
of the Navy lifestyle is family separation. Navy family separation may be due to training exercises,
overseas deployments, ship duty or Individual Augmentee deployments (Naval Services
FamilyLine, 2013). The Army, which is the largest fighting force in the US military, deploys soldiers
for an average of 12 months, which is longer than any other branch. The Army, like the Marine
Corps, continuously trains (or drills) to keep a ready force. As a result, soldiers and Marines are likely
to experience more absences relative to the other Service Branches, although, this is somewhat
dependentupon their job assignment or militaryoperational specialty (MOS). The AirForce deploys
its Service Members less often than their counterparts; however, they still may deploy for lengthy
periods of time depending on their MOS. Regardless of branch, a Service Member will inevitably
spend time away from his or her family numerous times over a typical 20-year career.
In alignment with the changing demographics of the US military from a force of largely single
males to individuals with spouses and children, it is not surprising that, as of 2012, 44 per cent of
Department of Defense active duty Military personnel were parents 37 per cent married and
7 per cent single. Further, 2.8 per cent of the identified married parents were in dual military
marriage, which indicates that both parents were active duty Service Members who could be
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