The formation of suspicion: A vignette study

Published date01 September 2020
Date01 September 2020
DOI10.1177/1461355720929038
Subject MatterArticles
PSM929038 274..284
Article
International Journal of
Police Science & Management
The formation of suspicion:
2020, Vol. 22(3) 274–284
ª The Author(s) 2020
A vignette study
Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/1461355720929038
journals.sagepub.com/home/psm
Scott W Phillips
State University of New York, USA
Abstract
Being suspicious is part of police training, and is emphasized in police culture. Tversky and Kahneman argued that people
make decisions based on a limited number of heuristic factors to reduce a complex task to likely probabilities (Tversky A
and Kahneman D [1974] Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases. Science 185[4157]: 1124–1131). This study
contributes to the body of scholarship studying police suspicion. It uses vignettes describing an incident involving
characteristics important when police officers form suspicion. This design allows respondents to judge a situation
before actual engagement. A convenience sample of police officers, supervisors, and administrators from police
agencies of different sizes located in two different states responded to an online survey. Results demonstrated that
the time of an event, the person’s race, and their manner of dress, contributed to the formation of suspicion. Other
factors (i.e., suspect age, neighborhood) were not significantly related to suspicion. Further, respondents with few years of
experience were more likely to see the conditions within a vignette as suspicious. The findings indicate that unacceptable
stereotyping can result from using scanty or outdated heuristic tools to simplify decision-making. Further, there is a need
for additional research examining the conditions related to suspicion formation.
Keywords
Suspicion, symbolic assailant, vignettes, police decision-making, heuristics
Submitted 05 Nov 2019, Revise received 09 Jan 2020, accepted 04 May 2020
Introduction
Suspicion is a defining characteristic of police officers
(Rubenstein, 1973). Being suspicious is part of police
For nearly 50 years, scholars have examined factors influ-
training, and is emphasized in police culture (Crank,
encing police officer decision-making and behavior. Most
1998). When officers observe suspicious behavior, they
of the research studied the arrest decision or the use of
then associate that action with criminality. It follows that
force during an interaction. Recent iterations of this area
potential criminal behavior can be dangerous to the officer
of research have focused more specifically on the topic of
who is responsible for dealing with a suspicious event or
racial profiling, mainly when an officer conducts a traffic
person. Skolnick (1975: 43) argued that police officers
stop (Novak and Chamlin, 2012). Others have explored
have “cognitive propensities”, contributing to the offi-
officer-involved shooting incidents, suggesting that offi-
cer’s decision-making when handling a suspicious inci-
cers may possess subconscious or “implicit bias” when
dent. A key factor influencing their cognitive
they use deadly force (James et al., 2016; Nix et al.,
propensities is the potential for danger. The officer’s view
2017). Alpert et al. (2005: 408) argued that a problem
of his working world allows him to identify specific kinds
with much of the prior research was that it examined the
behavior of police officers “after a contact with a citizen
has been initiated, and tends to examine the subsequent
courses of action police officers take”. These authors sug-
Corresponding author:
Scott W Phillips, State University of New York, 1300 Elmwood Ave.,
gested that a police officer’s “formation of suspicion” is
Buffalo, NY 14222, USA.
missing from the literature.
Email: phillisw@buffalostate.edu

Phillips
275
of people as symbolic assailants who are potentially crim-
methods such as threats, interrogations, physical restraints,
inal and a possible danger to the officer. Skolnick’s work
or arrests (Garner et al., 2002; Rabe-Hemp, 2008).
is in line with the theoretical assertions of Tversky and
Research examining traffic stop behavior indicated con-
Kahneman (1974). These authors suggested that a person
flicting outcomes. Withrow (2004) reported that the offi-
makes decisions based on beliefs. However, a person will
cer’s gender was not related to the decision to stop a Black
“rely on a limited number of heuristic principles which
driver. Nevertheless, Alpert et al. (2007) indicated that
reduce the complex tasks of assessing probabilities and
female officers were more likely to stop vehicles driven
predicting values to simpler judgmental operations”
by Black citizens.
(Tversky and Kahneman, 1974: 1124).
Researchers have explored the experience level of a
This study intends to expand on the body of scholarship
police officer as a contributing factor in decision-
examining police decision-making, particularly police
making. Kaminski et al. (2003), as well as Terrill and
formation of suspicion. It hopes to fill gaps in the litera-
Mastrofski (2002), reported a negative relationship
ture in two ways. First, it uses a vignette research design to
between years of experience and an officer’s use of force.
describe an incident involving essential characteristics
Others reported no relationship between experience and
used in past research of a police officer’s calculation of
the use of force (Garner et al., 1996; Worden, 1995).
suspicion. This methodology can include multiple charac-
Studies of traffic stop behavior indicate similar conflict-
teristics, whose combinations are often missing in prior
ing findings. For example, Withrow (2004) found that
scholarship. Further, this design allows respondents to
officers with more time on the job were more likely to
judge a situation before actual engagement. These vign-
stop Black citizens. Alpert and his colleagues (2005)
ette design features can contribute to the dearth of litera-
reported no relationship between experience and the deci-
ture on the formation of suspicion. Second, respondents
sion to stop a Black driver. When studying how police
were police officers, supervisors, and administrators from
handle domestic violence incidents, several studies have
police agencies of different sizes located in two different
shown that officers with more years of experience were
states. This sample provides improved generalizability
less likely to arrest a domestic violence offender (Breci,
which was more limited in studies using data from a single
1989; Stalans and Finn, 1995). Others report no relation-
jurisdiction.
ship with the arrest decision (Phillips, 2008) or the number
of charges filed by an officer (Phillips and Varano, 2008).
Literature review
Situational factors
There is a substantial body of scholarship examining police
behavior and the factors that drive a police officer’s deci-
A situational factor is an aspect of the incident that is being
sions. Commonly, the research explores the decision to
handled by an officer. Early research by Black (1976)
arrest or issue a ticket, or studies the officer’s use of force.
reported that the arrest decision was related to the serious-
The research is often divided into three primary groups:
ness of the offense as well as the suspect’s demeanor
individual officer characteristics, situational factors, and
toward the officer. DA Smith (1987) also found that suspect
organizational elements.
demeanor, as well as the victim’s preference, were related
to the arrest decision. Studies of police arrest decisions
when handling domestic violence incidents reported simi-
Individual factors
lar findings. For example, Oppenlander reported that police
The race of a police officer is often considered an essential
officers would charge offenders in a manner serving as
factor in determining his decision-making, but this factor is
“retribution for the assailant’s hostility to the police”
rarely associated with the decision to use force (Garner
(1982: 457). Similar research indicated that police officers
et al., 1996; Terrill and Mastrofski, 2002; Worden, 1995).
would list more criminal charges for those offenders who
Other scholars, however, found that Hispanic and White
were uncooperative (Phillips and Varano, 2008). Neverthe-
police officers were less likely than African-American offi-
less, other research exploring police arrest decisions during
cers to stop African-American drivers (Alpert et al., 2007).
the initial era of domestic violence “mandatory arrest” laws
Further, Dunham et al. (2005) found that White officers
reported that only those offenders who were extremely
were twice as likely to write a traffic ticket after the stop
hostile toward the officer were likely to be arrested (Klin-
occurred. Concerning the officer’s gender, some scholar-
ger, 1996).
ship reported no relationship to an officer’s use of force
A frequent subject of research focuses on the officer’s
(Garner et al., 1996; Terrill and Mastrofski, 2002; Worden,
use of force. The decision to use force is typically associ-
1995). However, some research indicated that female offi-
ated with the handling of a violent offense (Alpert et al.,
cers are less likely than male officers to use controlling
2004; Friedrich, 1980; Garner et al., 1996; Worden, 1995)

276
International Journal of Police Science & Management 22(3)
or if the offender possesses a weapon (Garner et al., 1996;
Other research has considered organizational factors
Terrill et al., 2003). Terrill and colleagues (2003) also
related to agency type or location. For example, Terrill...

To continue reading

Request your trial

VLEX uses login cookies to provide you with a better browsing experience. If you click on 'Accept' or continue browsing this site we consider that you accept our cookie policy. ACCEPT