‘They'd beat us with whatever is available to them’: Exploitation and abuse of Ghanaian domestic workers in the Middle East
| Published date | 01 August 2023 |
| Author | Leander Kandilige,Joseph Kofi Teye,Mary Setrana,Delali Margaret Badasu |
| Date | 01 August 2023 |
| DOI | http://doi.org/10.1111/imig.13096 |
1Centre for Migration Studies, University of
Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
2Regional Institute for Population Studies,
University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
Correspondence
Leander Kandilige, Centre for Migration
Studies, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 59,
Legon, Accra, Ghana.
Email: lkandilige@ug.edu.gh;
leanderkandilige@gmail.com
Abstract
Generic accounts of pervasive cases of exploitation and abuse
against migrant domestic workers in the Middle East exist in the
extant literature. However, very little is known about the breadth,
depth and gendered nature of abuses experienced by female
migrants from especially the sub-Saharan African region. Abuses
of the rights of sub-Saharan Africans are under-represented and
under-theorised. This paper interrogates the question what is
the nature, extent and severity of exploitation and abuse against
female Ghanaian domestic workers in the Middle East? Using
data from mixed-methods research, this paper adopts the
framework of structural, symbolic and interpersonal violence to
examine the range of abuses against domestic workers and the
context within which these abuses take place.
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
‘They'd beat us with whatever is available to
them’: Exploitation and abuse of Ghanaian
domestic workers in the Middle East
Leander Kandilige1 | Joseph Kofi Teye1 | Mary Setrana1 |
Delali Margaret Badasu2
DOI: 10.1111/imig.13096
Received: 11 October 2021 Revised: 7 November 2022 Accepted: 12 November 2022
INTRODUCTION
International migration continues to dominate global discourses on rights, responsibilities, belongingness and compe-
tition for and access to limited national resources, especially during economic downturns and global health emer-
gencies (IOM, 2020a, 2020b). The current global pandemic, COVID-19, has further exposed vulnerabilities that
non-nationals face when states are compelled to adopt inward looking policies in the name of self-preservation
(Parrenas, 2021). Over time, international migration has been the focus of much attention not only in countries of
destination but also countries of transit and of origin. The most obvious lens through which international migration is
analysed is that of the potential socioeconomic benefits to countries of origin (IOM, 2020a, 2020b; Kandilige, 2017).
240
© 2023 International Organization for Migration.
Int Migr. 2023;61:240–256.wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/imig
Correcti on added on Janua ry 18, 2023, af ter first onli ne publicatio n: The framewor k that this pape r adopts has bee n updated in the la st line of the
abstrac t.
EXPLOITATION AND ABUSE OF DOMESTIC WORKERS241
This is despite known challenges associated with international migration (IOM, 2020a, 2020b). The activities of
illegitimate actors within the migration industry have imperilled the personal safety and livelihoods of a significant
section of mostly low-skilled and irregular migrants (Agunias, 2013; Awumibila et al., 2019; Chan Unger, 2015;
Chrouchi, 2002; Gammeltoft-Hansen & Nyberg Sørensen, 2013; Stivachtis, 2008). The increasing feminisation of
international migration (Castles et al., 2014; Labadie-Jackson, 2008; UNDESA, 2014) and associated security impli-
cations resulting from trafficking, smuggling, exploitation and abuse of female migrants demand a closer examination.
As Awumbila (2015) posits, migration streams in Ghana are being feminised with growing numbers of Ghana-
ian females migrating through both regular and irregular channels in search of better work and life opportunities.
The feminisation of international migration and the changing roles of intermediaries are, however, not unique to
Ghana but shared across several developing countries (Spener, 2009; Xiang & Lindquist, 2014). Within the Ghana-
ian context, female domestic workers constitute the majority of persons recruited for employment in the Middle
East (Labour Department, 2017). While there is a paucity of data on the migration patterns and conditions of these
domestic workers, the Ghana Immigration Service (GIS) has reported that the number of migrants to the Gulf region
has increased tremendously in recent years, with the main destination countries being Saudi Arabia, Qatar and United
Arab Emirates (UAE). The latest report on the Migration Profile for Ghana also indicates the growing number of
mostly female domestic workers from Ghana to the Gulf Region due to high demand for domestic labour (IOM,
2019). The growing feminisation of international migration is equally reflected within the West African region where
Bisong (2019) notes that 46.7% of all migrants within the region are females. This is a slight increase in percentage
from 45.3% in 2010 and 46% in 2015 (Setrana & Kleist, 2022:59). An exception is in countries such as Niger and
Burkina Faso where female migrants surpass male migrants, representing 52% of the migrant stock (Bisong, 2019).
Graphic reports of generalised and widespread abuses against female Ghanaian migrants, like migrants of other
nationalities, culminated in the imposition of a temporary visa ban for Ghanaian migrants recruited for domestic work
in the region in June 2017. The Labour Department (2017) reported a total of 1755 migrants recruited by private
recruitment agencies in 2015, 2372 in 2016 and 1589 by May 2017. According to IOM (2020a, 2020b) there is no
official data on Ghanaian migrants in the Middle East post-2017. This data blackout complicates any credible trend
analysis, but it has not marked an end to the reported incidents of abuse. The continuing incidents of victims to abuse
from the country, after the imposition of the ban, however, suggests that this emigration control measure is ineffec-
tive (at best) and possibly counter-productive. The so-called temporary visa ban is still in place in 2022 and this has
contributed to an increase in the number of aspiring migrants who use the services of unscrupulous informal/illegal
recruiters and young females continuing to migrate to the Middle East as domestic workers but from the territories
of neighbouring ECOWAS countries. The unintended beneficiaries of the policy measure are the informal/illegal
recruiters while the victims are female migrants whose precarity has rather worsened. Other works on the migration
of Ghanaian domestic workers superficially allude to cases of abuse. Awumibila et al. (2019), for instance, discussed
the intricacies of the migration industry in Ghana, which facilitate the migration of Ghanaians through two main
corridors towards Europe and the Gulf States. Relying on the risk theory, Awumbila et al. found that there is no strong
correlation between migrants' awareness of potential risks and a reduction in migration flows. Their study alluded to
generalised reported abuses and Ghana government's attempt to use banning of migration to the Middle East as a
policy measure to curb incidents of abuse against migrants. As de Haas (2005) notes, policy actions by governments
to ban, to minimise or to stop migration are part of the myths of migration.
Other studies have focussed on internal differences even in precarity. Fernandez (2011) identified a hierarchical
ranking of female migrant domestic workers in the Middle East in relation to their race or country of origin. Filipina
women are ranked at the top followed by Indonesian and Sri Lankan women, with African women at the lowermost
part of the strata. For instance, households that employed Filipino, Indonesian and Ethiopian domestic workers are
said to have accorded the Ethiopians the least recognition compared with the others. Disparities exist within pay
scales depending on where one comes from. According to Fernandez (2011), Filipina women command the high-
est salaries because of their perceived high status whilst Ethiopian women domestic workers in the Middle East
are paid a miserable sum of $100 to $150 per month, which is generally below the payment standards. Practices of
Get this document and AI-powered insights with a free trial of vLex and Vincent AI
Get Started for FreeStart Your Free Trial of vLex and Vincent AI, Your Precision-Engineered Legal Assistant
-
Access comprehensive legal content with no limitations across vLex's unparalleled global legal database
-
Build stronger arguments with verified citations and CERT citator that tracks case history and precedential strength
-
Transform your legal research from hours to minutes with Vincent AI's intelligent search and analysis capabilities
-
Elevate your practice by focusing your expertise where it matters most while Vincent handles the heavy lifting
Start Your Free Trial of vLex and Vincent AI, Your Precision-Engineered Legal Assistant
-
Access comprehensive legal content with no limitations across vLex's unparalleled global legal database
-
Build stronger arguments with verified citations and CERT citator that tracks case history and precedential strength
-
Transform your legal research from hours to minutes with Vincent AI's intelligent search and analysis capabilities
-
Elevate your practice by focusing your expertise where it matters most while Vincent handles the heavy lifting
Start Your Free Trial of vLex and Vincent AI, Your Precision-Engineered Legal Assistant
-
Access comprehensive legal content with no limitations across vLex's unparalleled global legal database
-
Build stronger arguments with verified citations and CERT citator that tracks case history and precedential strength
-
Transform your legal research from hours to minutes with Vincent AI's intelligent search and analysis capabilities
-
Elevate your practice by focusing your expertise where it matters most while Vincent handles the heavy lifting
Start Your Free Trial of vLex and Vincent AI, Your Precision-Engineered Legal Assistant
-
Access comprehensive legal content with no limitations across vLex's unparalleled global legal database
-
Build stronger arguments with verified citations and CERT citator that tracks case history and precedential strength
-
Transform your legal research from hours to minutes with Vincent AI's intelligent search and analysis capabilities
-
Elevate your practice by focusing your expertise where it matters most while Vincent handles the heavy lifting
Start Your Free Trial of vLex and Vincent AI, Your Precision-Engineered Legal Assistant
-
Access comprehensive legal content with no limitations across vLex's unparalleled global legal database
-
Build stronger arguments with verified citations and CERT citator that tracks case history and precedential strength
-
Transform your legal research from hours to minutes with Vincent AI's intelligent search and analysis capabilities
-
Elevate your practice by focusing your expertise where it matters most while Vincent handles the heavy lifting