Violence against women

Published date01 September 2018
Date01 September 2018
DOI10.1177/1461355718793666
AuthorJenny Norman,Keri Nixon,Emma Williams
Subject MatterArticles
PSM793666 196..206
Article
International Journal of
Police Science & Management
Violence against women: Public health
2018, Vol. 20(3) 196–206
ª The Author(s) 2018
or law enforcement problem or both?
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DOI: 10.1177/1461355718793666
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Emma Williams
Canterbury Christ Church University, UK
Jenny Norman
Canterbury, UK
Keri Nixon
Cygnet Healthcare, UK
Abstract
Despite ongoing research spanning many years, the police investigation of different forms of violence against women
remains problematic. The most recent reviews exploring sexual and domestic violence suggest that vulnerable
victims are not identified effectively and that this subsequently impacts on the investigation, level of attrition and
provision of correct support for victims. The authors suggest that some of the current methods, aimed at improving
these issues, can further compound problems within a police culture that often remains focused on narrow
quantifiable performance targets. Violence against women involves a range of very complex issues and for most
victims there are a number of vulnerabilities involved. Considering these factors are often related to public health
concerns, the authors argue for a more consistent and joined-up approach to supporting victims through the
criminal justice system. In the short term, this is necessary for keeping victims on board with the process and in
the longer term, it is essential when dealing effectively with the broader issues impacting on their victimization. It is
crucial given the current fiscal climate that these issues are dealt with universally, with a focus on sustainable
outcomes. It is argued that integrating criminal justice and public health strategies will provide for more embedded
and effective outcomes for victims.
Keywords
rape, domestic violence, attrition, vulnerabilities, victims
Submitted 29 Jun 2018, accepted 13 Jul 2018
Introduction
Particularly in relation to sexual violence, the problem
of attrition and the classifications made at the point of
Authors from the 1970s onwards have written about the
reporting to the police have been the subject of ongoing
complex and problematic nature of policing and the way
research for a number of years (J Brown, 2011). Further-
in which it deals with situations of violence against women
more, despite this research, the attrition rate remains high,
–in relation to both domestic (Edwards, 1989; Kelly, 1999;
particular at the pre-charge stage (Stanko and Williams,
Stanko, 1985) and sexual violence (Jordan, 2004; Temkin
and Krahe, 2008). In cases of both sexual and domestic
violence, the police are essentially the gatekeepers to the
Corresponding author:
criminal justice system and similar issues have been noted
Emma Williams, Canterbury Christ Church University, Glebe House,
in this debate for both areas of violence against women
Canterbury, CT1 1QU, UK.
(Lees and Gregory, 1999).1
Email: emma.williams@canterbury.ac.uk

Williams et al.
197
Table 1. Predicted probability of attrition depending on the number of vulnerabilities.
Probability of attrition (%)
No vulnerabilities
One vulnerability
Two vulnerabilities
Three or more vulnerabilities
Classified as no crime
23.8
29.8
36.7
44.1
Attrition at crimed-to-charged stage
74.2
74.5
74.9
75.3
Attrition at post-charged stage
31.6
40.3
49.7
59.0
Source: Williams et al. (2009) p. 359.
2009). A number of academics have pointed to the issue of
of rape in London (Angliolini, 2015) revealed the extent of
consent bound together with the believability of the victim
complexities involved in the lives of rape victims. Inter-
as two of the most critical factors involved in the complex-
views with staff from sexual assault referral centres
ity of rape investigations (V Munro and Kelly, 2009; Jor-
revealed the multifaceted nature of the issues involved that
dan, 2011; Hohl and Stanko, 2015). This is further
extend way beyond the actual incident of rape itself. These
compounded by the complexity of the issues presented by
included chaotic lifestyle factors; housing issues and
the majority of victims of sexual and domestic violence
related homelessness; drug and/or alcohol dependency;
who report to the police (Williams et al., 2009). It is these
mental health issues; learning and physical disabilities;
issues and the fact that the number of complex cases is
domestic abuse and child care issues. All of which are
increasing that make up the focus of this article and provide
likely to impact on a police investigation.
the evidence for a more rounded, joined-up public health
Recent research by Khalifeh et al. (2014) found that
and law enforcement approach to deal with these crimes.
40% of women with severe mental illness surveyed for
In December 2015, Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Con-
their project had been victims of rape or attempted rape,
stabulary (HMIC) reported that almost three-quarters of
this compares with 7% of the general population. Similarly,
police forces in England and Wales are letting down vul-
adulthood domestic violence was reported by 69% of those
nerable victims. As a result of rising numbers of allegations
surveyed, compared with 33% of women in the control
of historical sexual abuse and widening definitions of
group. Additional complexities in relation to substance
domestic violence (to include coercive control), the
misuse were also present. However, it is difficult to clarify
demand on the police regarding vulnerable victims is
whether these issues were present prior to experiencing the
increasing (HMIC, 2015). With this rise in reporting, the
violence or as a result of the violence as a method of cop-
police are having to manage a range of very complex needs
ing. Indeed, there is further evidence that women who
amongst victims of sexual and domestic violence. Para-
experience domestic violence as an adult may have, at
doxically, this is juxtaposed with a reduction in both finan-
earlier stages of their lives, been victim to other forms of
cial and human resources to the police.
abuse directly or witnessed domestic violence in their
There has been much debate about what the police can
homes (World Health Organization, 2016). When it comes
realistically deliver in an environment in which the
to the police dealing with both domestic and sexual vio-
demands on the police are widening (Millie and Bullock,
lence against women, the pertinent issues relevant to the
2013). Cuts to victim services, other public sector and vol-
victim typologies present are also worth considering along-
untary agencies that deal with related issues (including
side wider police debates. Issues around police decision-
individuals with mental health issues) (Cummins, 2016)
making (Williams and Stanko, 2016), the use of discretion
have been linked to this rise in demand and subsequently,
(Myhill and Johnson, 2016), the way that policing is mea-
the number of vulnerable people coming into contact with
sured and subsequently what counts as ‘good policing’
the police. Liver (cited in Hartley and Hesketh, 2015) dis-
(Westmarland, 2001) are also relevant in this debate. In
cusses how this changing demand has impacted on the need
order to curtail some of the issues arising from various
for police agencies to acquire a range of different skills and
review findings about the ‘lottery’ of police treatment
specialisms to effectively manage this changing picture.
[Angliolini, 2015; HMIC, 2015; Her Majesty’s Inspecto-
Dealing with issues that could be referred to what Grint
rate for the Constabulary and Her Majesty’s Crown Prose-
(2010) articulates as, ‘wicked problems’, requires clear
cution Service Inspectorate (HMIC/HMPSCI), 2007; Stern
problem identification via the correct assessment of vulner-
Review, 2010] one answer appears to be the development
able characteristics and, furthermore, suitable joined-up
of evidence-based toolkits. The careful management of
methods to address these needs in a universal way. An
risk, has become a key feature of the police environment
independent review into the investigation and prosecution
and much is written on the notion of risk aversion

198
International Journal of Police Science & Management 20(3)
(Cockcroft, 2012) and risk management (Ericson and
perhaps influence them becoming a victim initially are also
Haggerty, 1997). Conversely, however, and perhaps more
the issues that appear to influence decisions about the case
pertinent when considering the complex issues involved in
leaving the system (Stanko and Williams, 2009).
these situations, creative thinking and a more holistic
The evidence that the long-term problems with attrition
approach can be limited by narrowly defined tool kits and
and conviction rates remain indicates that the extensive
the performance frameworks developed to measure the suc-
research, ongoing reviews and subsequent reform agendas
cess of proposed reforms. Indeed, Sklansky (2008) talks
in this area are having limited impact. The research project
about the concept of law enforcement ‘Taylorism’ which
to which this article, in part, refers (Stanko et al., 2005)
can limit creative, more considered approaches and recon-
shows, over a number of years, that the vulnerable charac-
struct the artisan aspect of police work as almost robotic.
teristics present among victims of sexual violence remain
Furthermore, Illich (cited in Chan, 2003) concludes that
consistent, as do the high attrition rates. Therefore, this
structures to make...

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