Violence, Control and Restraint: The Harms to Young Adults Particularly Upon Transition
| Published date | 01 December 2021 |
| Author | JAYNE PRICE |
| Date | 01 December 2021 |
| DOI | http://doi.org/10.1111/hojo.12418 |
The Howard Journal Vol60 No 4. December 2021 DOI: 10.1111/hojo.12418
ISSN 2059-1098, pp. 511–528
Violence, Control and Restraint: The
Harms to Young Adults Particularly
Upon Transition
JAYNE PRICE
Lecturer in Criminology, University of Chester
Abstract: The transition into the young adult/adult estate at age 18 years is marked
by a significant loss of provision and shift in institutional treatment. One of the many
harms endured is the change in restraint which is harmful and damaging yet prevailing.
The data presented here show how the distinct needs of this vulnerable population are
widely overlooked. This article extends the literature regarding young adults and argues
that there should be greater exploration and understanding of their behaviour and the
impacts of transitions. This, in turn, leads to recommendations for changes to practices
within the young adult/adult estate.
Keywords: harm; prison; restraint; transition; violence; young people
Young adults held within custodial settings are more likely than the general
population to have experience of adverse childhood experiences (ACE)
such as witnessing or being a victim of abuse and violence (Prison Reform
Trust 2019). This has significant implications upon physical and mental
health and well-being (Anda et al. 2006; Hughes et al. 2016) and signifies
how this population are vulnerable. They are also undergoing a critical
period of neurological development and identity formation. While there
is a broad body of literature that acknowledges the vulnerability1of the
youth custodial population and the requirement to provide safeguards for
them, it is only recently that the particular needs of young adults (aged 18–
24 years) within custody have begun to attract critical attention. Evidence
which demonstrates that developmental maturity extends beyond typical
definitions of adulthood at age 18 years has led to calls for a distinct ap-
proach which is not present within the criminal justice system (Harris 2015;
HM Inspectorate of Prisons 2021; House of Commons Justice Committee
2016).
To acknowledge their vulnerabilities, children aged up to 18 years
are held within three types of institution within the youth custodial es-
tate which, although are not without criticism (Goldson 2015; HM Chief
511
C
2021 The Authors. The Howard Journal of Crime and Justice published by Howard League
and John Wiley & Sons Ltd
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which per-
mits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The Howard Journal Vol60 No 4. December 2021
ISSN 2059-1098, pp. 511–528
Inspector of Prisons 2017), are smaller and better resourced than prisons
within the young adult/adult estate. As ‘adults’, upon turning age 18 years,
young people transition into young adult/adult prisons. There are three
‘distinct’ male young adult young offender institutions (YOIs),2Felth am
(split site)3and Aylesbury hold 18- to 21-year-olds, and Deerbolt holds 18-
to 24-year-olds; however they only accommodate 6% of the age 18–25 years
population with the remainder dispersed among the wider adult prison
estate (HM Inspectorate of Prisons 2021). Such institutions are said to be
‘coterminous with adult prisons’ (National Preventive Mechanism 2018,
p.51) and as they operate under the same prison service orders (PSOs)
and prison service instructions (PSIs) as adult prisons4how ‘distinct’ these
institutions are is unclear. The definition of ‘young adults’ in this context
is ambiguous, historically, it has been set at age 18–20 years for sentencing
purposes. While HM Prison and Probation Service (2019) recognises the
ongoing development of those aged up to 25 years, it has been argued that
it is not translated into suitable provision for this population (HM Inspec-
torate of Prisons 2021; House of Commons Justice Committee 2018).
Beyond age 18 years, young adults continue to develop neurologically to
adult capacity which impacts upon their behaviour and reasoning (House
of Commons Justice Committee 2016). The final part of the brain to mature
is the frontal lobe, the area associated with planning and impulse control
(Johnson, Blum and Giedd 2009). During this period, young adults have
heightened selectivity and reactivity to negative stimuli (Tannerand Arnett
2009). Therefore, their actions and responses are different from those of
adults who have increased capacity as they have stabilised neurologically.
As young adults within the criminal justice system are frequently drawn
from disadvantaged backgrounds and prior experience of harm and abuse
(Hughes et al. 2016) the traits of ongoing maturity are more pronounced,
not least because while they may physically mature, the experience of in-
carceration also stalls developmental maturation (Gooch 2016).
There is a lack of distinction of treatment between young adults and
adults, despite fundamental differences in their neurology and subsequent
needs (House of Commons Justice Committee 2018). This has resulted in
young adults reporting much poorer outcomes across many aspects of their
prison life (HM Inspectorate of Prisons 2021). There is little exploration of
their experiences of practices within the young adult/adult estate, particu-
larly for those who have made the stark transition from the youth custodial
estate. Upon transfer, there is an arbitrary shift in provision and practices
based on institutional constructions of age. This article focuses on young
adults’ prison experience of violence and restraint. While there has been
much criticism of restraint on children, there is little evidence which chal-
lenges the change of practice upon transition and explores its use upon
young adults. Using interview data, drawn from a project which explored
transitions between the youth custodial estate and young adult/adult es-
tate, and FOI requests, this article argues that arbitrary mechanisms to
control young adults disregard evidence about their particular needs, and
exacerbates the harms of imprisonment to an already vulnerable and over-
looked population. The article concludes that there should be increased
512
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2021 The Authors. The Howard Journal of Crime and Justice published by Howard League
and John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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