Alcohol- and drug-related public violence in Europe
| Date | 01 November 2020 |
| Published date | 01 November 2020 |
| DOI | 10.1177/1477370819828324 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370819828324
European Journal of Criminology
2020, Vol. 17(6) 806 –825
© The Author(s) 2019
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DOI: 10.1177/1477370819828324
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Alcohol- and drug-related
public violence in Europe
Jan G.C. van Amsterdam
University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Johannes G. Ramaekers
Maastricht University, The Netherlands
Robbert-Jan Verkes
Radboud University Medical Center, The Netherlands
Kim P.C. Kuypers
Maastricht University, The Netherlands
Anna E. Goudriaan
University of Amsterdam and Amsterdam Institute for Addiction Research, The Netherlands
Wim van den Brink
University of Amsterdam and Amsterdam Institute for Addiction Research, The Netherlands
Abstract
This study summarizes the literature about alcohol- and drug-related public violence in Europe.
The proportion of all public violent incidents linked to alcohol was about 50 percent in the UK and
ranged from 26 percent to 43 percent in Germany, Austria and the Netherlands. Public violence
related to drugs is much lower (1.5–18.0 percent). Relatively many public violent incidents
occur in relation to nightlife (80 percent of alcohol-related incidents). Though a considerable
proportion of public violence was alcohol or drug related, the actual use of such substances was
rarely ascertained in perpetrators’ specimens. Such analysis is a prerequisite to heavier penalize
alcohol- or drug-intoxicated perpetrators of public violence. More capacity should be deployed to
Corresponding author:
Jan G.C. van Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Center, PO Box 22660, Amsterdam
1100 DD, The Netherlands.
Email: jan.van.amsterdam@amc.uva.nl
828324EUC0010.1177/1477370819828324European Journal of CriminologyAmsterdam et al.
research-article2019
Article
Amsterdam et al. 807
measure alcohol and drugs in the specimens of violent perpetrators by analytical-chemical tests.
As a result, more accurate estimates of substance-related public violence are obtained, which will
serve policy makers and police enforcement officials to take measures for securing a safer public
environment and sustainable nightlife industry in the future.
Keywords
Aggression, alcohol, contextual factors, stimulants, violence
Introduction
In the past two decades the consumption of alcohol in Europe has steadily declined whereas
that of illegal drugs has stabilized (EMCDDA, 2017; Shield et al., 2016). Despite the
decrease in alcohol consumption in Europe, it is still considerable, with more European
students reporting alcohol consumption and more intense patterns of drinking than their US
peers (EMCDDA, 2017; McIlwain and Homel, 2009). The high consumption of alcohol,
both at home and in public places, coincides with increased criminal violent behaviour, that
is, a growing number of violent incidents in both the private and public space. For example,
30 percent of Canadian residents (aged 18–60) had experienced violent behaviour while in
licensed premises (Graham et al., 2002). In addition, a recent meta-analysis showed that
violence in general (that is, not specifically public violence) is related to the use of alcohol
and illicit drugs with a medium effect size (d = 0.45) (Duke et al., 2018).
With respect to causality between alcohol use and public violence, it has been pro-
posed that alcohol use (acute intoxication) plays a decisive role in about half of all vio-
lent crimes (Darke, 2010) by increasing the likelihood and degree of aggressive
behaviour. Indeed, alcohol consumption induces disinhibition, which in turn may lead to
inappropriate social behaviour, characterized by impaired decision-making, distorted
perceptions of social cues, agitation and loss of respectful behaviour (Leonard, 1984).
Between one-third and one-half of perpetrators had consumed alcohol prior to a violent
incident; individual country estimates were USA 35 percent, South Africa 44 percent,
England and Wales 45 percent and China 50 percent (WHO, 2009). However, because
many people who (excessively) drink are not violent, it is tenuous to propose a causal
relationship between alcohol and violence where alcohol is a necessary and sufficient
cause. Though laboratory experiments have shown that alcohol-intoxicated people react
more aggressively than sober people, which increases with increasing amounts of alco-
hol consumed (Bushman, 1997; Hoaken and Phil, 2000; Taylor and Leonard, 1983), it
would be too trivial to describe violence and crime as ‘alcohol fuelled’. Alcohol use on
its own is not a sufficient predictor of aggressive behaviour, considering the severe con-
founding and effect modification by numerous drinking, personal, and contextual varia-
bles (Graham et al., 1998; Pedersen et al., 2016).
Theoretical framework
Three useful explanatory models of drug-related crime have been described by Paul
Goldstein (Goldstein, 1985): the psychopharmacological model, the economic motivation
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