An Exploratory Examination of the Sources of Socialisation Influencing Juvenile Perceptions of the Police
| Date | 01 March 2014 |
| DOI | 10.1350/ijps.2014.16.1.326 |
| Published date | 01 March 2014 |
| Author | Kimberly D. Hassell,Danielle M. Romain |
| Subject Matter | Paper |
An exploratory examination of the sources of
socialisation influencing juvenile perceptions
of the police
Danielle M. Romain‡ and Kimberly D. Hassell†
‡(Corresponding author) Department of Urban Studies, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee,
P.O. Box 786, 1115 Enderis Hall, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA. Email: dmromain@uwm.edu
†Department of Criminal Justice, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, P.O. Box 786, 1129
Enderis Hall, Milwaukee, WI 53201, USA
Submitted 4 November 2013, accepted 1 February 2014
Keywords: juveniles, perceptions of police, socialisation, race
Danielle M. Romain is a doctoral student in the
exploring the influence of socialisation factors in
Department of Urban Studies at the University
examining whether parents, friends, neighbours and
of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. Her research interests
media negatively affect juvenile perceptions of the
include court processing of domestic violence
police. A sample of 207 high-school students from
and sexual assault cases and gender and racial
a Midwestern city was surveyed on their general
disparities in prosecutorial decision-making.
and specific perceptions of the police. The results
Kimberly D. Hassell, PhD, is an associate profes-
demonstrate support for the influence of friends on
sor of criminal justice in the Helen Bader School
perceptions of the police; both general perceptions
of Social Welfare at the University of Wisconsin–
and the likelihood of having prior negatively rated
Milwaukee. Her research interests include police
contacts. Little support for other socialisation sources
organisational behaviour, police decision- making,
(ie, parents, neighbours and the media) was found.
women and policing, and police–community rela-
The implications for future research are discussed.
tions. Dr Hassell has published in various law-
enforcement journals such as Police Quarterly,
Policing: An International Journal of Police Strat-
INTRODUCTION
egies and Management, International Journal of
The general public’s perception of the police
Police Administration and Management, among
has been the subject of study for criminal jus-
others. She is also the author of the book, Police
tice practitioners and scholars alike, in part
Organizational Cultures and Patrol Practices and
because of the practical usefulness of this
co-author of Women and Policing in America.
information. Perceptions of trust and con-
fidence in the police have important impli-
cations for establishing police legitimacy
AbstrAct
(Norman, 2009; Tyler, 2001; Weitzer & Brun-
A growing body of literature on juvenile percep-
son, 2000). This research may inform local
tions of the police has demonstrated that vicarious
police departments, particularly those imple-
misconduct is a significant factor in determining
menting community policing programmes,
negative attitudes toward the police; however, the
on the likelihood of citizens taking part in
International Journal of Police
extant literature has not examined the potential
community partnerships (Flexon, Lurigio, &
Science and Management,
Vol. 16 No. 1, 2014, pp. 36–51.
sources of socialisation that may differentially affect
Greenleaf, 2009; Gau & Brunson, 2010;
DOI: 10.1350/ijps.2014.16.1.326
these perceptions. The current study focuses on Hinds, 2009; Wells, 2007). Given that juveniles
Page 36
Romain and Hassell
experience more frequent police-initiated lacking in direct personal experiences with
contacts and have higher victimisation rates,
the police may draw on information from
research examining factors affecting their family or friends who have had prior police
perceptions of the police is especially nec-
contact in forming assessments of police fair-
essary (Gau & Brunson, 2010; Hinds, 2009;
ness and trust (see Ward, 1974). Although the
Leiber, Nalla, & Farnworth, 1998).
literature has demonstrated that socialisation
Research on citizen perceptions of the is important in determining how people
police has been extensive, yet has focused perceive the police, an examination of how
predominantly on adult populations (Brown
various sources of socialisation (eg, family,
& Benedict, 2002). Studies examining juve-
neighbours, friends, media) may differen-
niles’ perceptions have generally found that
tially impact perceptions is needed. It may be
demographic characteristics (eg, race, sex and
the case that certain socialisations are more
age) are the most influential (see Brown &
meaningful in creating perceptions of the
Benedict, 2002 for review). While race has
police, as most adolescents spend more time
been found to consistently predict juvenile
socialising with friends than with parents or
perceptions, much of the previous research
neighbours (Brick, Taylor, & Esbensen, 2009;
has examined White and Black youth or Janeksela, 1999). In addition, the prevalence
compared all ‘non-Whites’ with Whites of media outlets containing messages about
(Geistman & Smith, 2007; Hurst & Frank,
the police may provide an additional ave-
2000; Nihart, Lersch, Sellers, & Mieczkowski,
nue for further investigation (Dowler, 2003;
2005). This dichotomy may mask important
Dowler & Zawilski, 2007). Further, anecdo-
variations in how differing racial and ethnic
tal evidence suggests that music lyrics con-
groups perceive and interact with the police.
taining messages about the police may be an
In addition, police contacts may differ in fre-
added source of socialisation for juveniles
quency among various racial groups, and as
(Sanneh, 2007; Shank, 1996). The current
such may influence how specific contacts study attempts to bridge this gap by examin-
with the police are evaluated (Hagan, Shedd,
ing several possible sources of socialisation on
& Payne, 2005). Yet the extant literature has
how juveniles rate the police both in general
overlooked the changing prevalence of racial
and in perceiving prior encounters.
and ethnic categories, most notably among
those identifying as multiracial. Given that
one in seven recent marriages in the USA is
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
between spouses of different races or ethnici-
ties, a multiracial category could not be more
Demographic factors and
vital (New York Times, January 29, 2011).
neighbourhoods
In addition, much of the extant literature
Much of the prior literature has examined
has demonstrated that vicarious experiences,
the effects of juveniles’ age, sex and race/
as one form of socialisation, influence how
ethnicity on perceptions of the police. Stud-
adults and juveniles perceive the police. Indi-
ies examining adult perceptions find that
viduals with vicarious experiences of police
younger individuals tend to rate the police
misconduct have more negative perceptions
more negatively than older individuals
of the police, suggesting the importance of
(Gainey & Payne, 2009; Wu, Sun, & Triplett,
socialisation in shaping police legitimacy 2009). Additional research on juvenile popu-
(Flexon et al., 2009; Hurst & Frank, 2000;
lations has also demonstrated this trend, with
Hurst, Frank, & Browning, 2000; Hurst, younger juveniles often rating the police
McDermott, & Thomas, 2005). Those more negatively than their older counterparts
Page 37
Juvenile perceptions of the police
(Hurst & Frank, 2000; Hurst et al., 2000; Black, White and Hispanic youth have also
Nihart et al., 2005; see Hinds, 2009 for found support for differing attitudes among
exception). In addition, research on sex has
these groups (Brick et al., 2009; Taylor et al.,
produced mixed findings — although males
2001).
are more likely to come into contact with
The influence of individual-level per-
the criminal justice system (Stewart, Baumer,
ceptions of neighbourhood conditions has
Brunson, & Simons, 2009; Weitzer & Brun-
also been implicated in juvenile attitudes
son, 2009), Gainey and Payne (2009) found
toward the police. Specifically, juveniles who
that females were more likely to express feel-
viewed their neighbourhoods as having high
ing unsafe in their neighbourhoods, and that
amounts of disorder and crime were more
safety assessments further influenced evalu-
likely to have negative attitudes toward the
ations of the police. Two additional studies
police (Hurst & Frank, 2000; Hurst et al.,
found that females evaluated the police more
2000). Leiber and colleagues (1998) also
negatively (Hurst & Frank, 2000; Hurst et al.,
found support for the influence of neigh-
2000), yet others have found that males hold
bourhood on juveniles’ respect for the police,
more negative attitudes toward the police yet these neighbourhood perceptions did not
(Reicher & Elmer, 1985; Taylor, Turner, influence assessments of police fairness and
Esbensen, & Winfree, 2001).
discrimination. It appears that the effects of
Additionally, much of the literature has neighbourhood perceptions may vary based
also found differences between racial/ethnic
upon the level of evaluation asked of indi-
groups in their perceptions of the police. To
viduals.
date, only two studies on adolescents have
failed to find racial differences in perceptions
Prior police contact
of the police (Hurst, 2007; Hurst et al., 2000).
Previous research has also focused on the
Although race has been demonstrated to extent to which prior police contacts influ-
strongly influence attitudes toward the police,
ence both general and specific perceptions ...
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