Breaking the Silence: The Traumatic Circle of Policing
| Published date | 01 September 2008 |
| Author | Jonathan Smith,Bronwen Rees |
| DOI | 10.1350/ijps.2008.10.3.83 |
| Date | 01 September 2008 |
| Subject Matter | Article |
Breaking the silence: the traumatic circle
of policing
Bronwen Rees‡ and Jonathan Smith†
‡(Corresponding author) Ashcroft International Business School, Anglia Ruskin University,
East Road, Cambridge, CB1 1PT, UK; email: dr.bronwenrees@ntlworld.com
†Ashcroft International Business School, Anglia Ruskin University, East Road
Cambridge, CB1 1PT; email: jonathan.smith@anglia.ac.uk
Received 16 April 2007; accepted 14 September 2007
Keywords: trauma, police culture, police training, stress, post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD)
Bronwen Rees is Director of the Centre of Com-
of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) which
munication and Ethics in International Business
shows that trauma, and its vicarious effects, is not
at the Ashcroft International Business School,
necessarily a mental disorder (though its symp-
Anglia Ruskin University. She has research inter-
toms may manifest as such) but is caused by
ests in communication, ethics, gender and
physiological and emotional changes in the body.
power, and has published widely internationally.
Further, studies on the social nature of trauma
She is also a senior trainee psychotherapist at
indicate that it is often the isolated conditions of
the Karuna Institute in Devon, and has a practice
trauma victims that can increase PTSD. Draw-
in Cambridge. She is specialising in trauma work.
ing on secondary data from one of the authors’
She is the founder of the East West Sanctuary,
work on spirituality in the police force, we explore
Hungary.
the connections between the physiological and
Jonathan Smith is a Senior Lecturer at the
emotional aspects of trauma and the conditions in
Ashcroft International Business School. His PhD
which police in the UK work. We suggest that
explored the relevance and application of spiritu-
police officers’ reports of the work they do, and
ality in the police training environment in the UK.
the way in which they learn to live with it, keeps
His work has now extended to encompass the
them in an ongoing cycle of retraumatisation. We
exploration of the spiritual dimension of leader-
suggest that we need to take into account the
ship in the workplace.
physiological, social as well as psychological (or
attitudinal) aspects of working in traumatic condi-
tions if we are to provide adequate training
ABSTRACT
support for police officers, so that they are not left
Operational police officers often work in traumatic
isolated in this cycle. This has potentially far-
reaching implications for the training of police
situations. Whilst training and support is pro-
officers.
vided to officers in these areas in the UK, and
some debriefing and counselling is provided, this
is not fully effective in addressing the so-called
INTRODUCTION
‘attitudinal’ problem of the police. We believe
that one of the reasons for this is that police
Our most pressing national problem
training does not adequately address the effects of
today is not the growth of the criminal
International Journal of Police
Science and Management,
working in traumatic conditions, and certainly
class. It is the silence, the apathy, and
Vol. 10 No. 3, 2008, pp. 267–279.
DOI: 10.1350/ijps.2008.10.3.83
does not take into account new work in the area
passivity of the people in the middle, the
Page 267
Breaking the silence: the traumatic circle of policing
settled, stable, caring reasonable bunch
of society which stands outside as the ‘silent
who have become so easily manipulated
bystander’. We argue that if we understand
by the vocal ends. This is the pathology
the mechanisms of trauma we may be able
of the bystander, to see what is wrong
to develop ways of supporting the police in
and remain silent. (Bloom, 1997, p. 247)
dealing with the difficult, sometimes vio-
lent, conditions in which they work.
Many years ago er I, er, was injured very
We explore the nature of trauma theory,
badly [whilst on duty as a police officer]
and then consider this in relationship to the
because I was stabbed. It was only then
culture and conditions in which the police
afterwards you think, ‘Oh why did that
force in the UK operate. Trauma is as much
happen like that, why aren’t I dead, why
a social affair as an individual one. We
am I not paralysed?’ I was stabbed right
suggest that, at an individual level, trauma
in the middle of my back. It was only
needs body attention for healing; at a social
afterwards when I came round I thought,
level, this needs to take place in the context
‘Well I should be dead’ [Looking down
of social support. We then go on to consider
and looking very thoughtful] er but I’m
the implications of this understanding and
not dead, why am I not dead?
how this could begin to be addressed in
This quotation was taken from a piece of
police training.
research dedicated to exploring the relev-
ance of a ‘spiritual’ focus to training in the
police force. This statement reveals some of
THE EMERGENCE OF TRAUMA AS A
the violence, tragedy and isolation that can
FIELD OF STUDY
be faced by police officers in their work.
The study of trauma and development of
Like many of the respondent’s colleagues,
trauma theory has had a chequered, amne-
who have faced similar difficult situations,
siac history. Herman (1992) notes that in
this person had been traumatised by this
the last century, knowledge of the effects of
incident which happened many years ago.
trauma has twice surfaced in public con-
They may have been living in that trauma
sciousness, and then been lost again. In the
ever since, finding coping mechanisms that
first instance, the study of ‘hysteria’
only they and their colleagues recognise,
emerged with the work of Freud who
mechanisms and strategies that isolate the
noticed a connection between psychiatric
police further from the community in
history, and sexually molested women.
which they had chosen to serve and thereby
However, since Freud felt that it was not
retraumatise themselves in the process.
credible that so many adults were molesting
In this paper, we reanalyse the data of
children (or at least that he was unable to
Smith’s (1985) research in the light of cur-
tolerate the reactions he had from people),
rent trauma theory. We suggest that reports
he later claimed that this was merely the
by some police officers of the work they do,
fantasy and not the reality of the women. As
and the way in which they learn to live
a result, the connection between childhood
with it keeps them, and the violent situ-
sexual abuse and adult psychiatric disorders
ations in which they frequently have to
was buried for another century. The second
engage, in a constant state of alienation
major emergence of trauma was after the
from the rest of society — in its shadow.
First and Second World Wars, with ‘shell
Looking at the physiological symptoms of
shock’ in World War I and ‘combat fatigue’
trauma, we suggest that a vicious cycle of
or ‘combat neurosis’ in World War II. Whilst
trauma may be maintained at an individual
the effects of long-term violence was recog-
and social level, and perpetuated by the rest
nised, it was still considered at this time to
Page 268
Rees and Smith
be a weakness of the soldier. Not until the
mechanism. This mechanism is not a
problems of the Vietnam veterans came into
planned, deliberately thought-out reaction,
focus, as a result of the veterans organising
but a rapid-fire, automatic, total body
themselves outside governmental agencies,
response. It goes through various stages and,
paralleling a similar movement amongst
under natural conditions in the animal
American and Western European feminists,
world, it provides a life-saving, or pain-
did the reality of violence, and its long-term
saving mechanism.
effects if not treated, become acknowl-
Let us take the example of an antelope
edged. In 1980, the diagnosis of post-
feeding on the plains of Africa (Sills, 2003).
traumatic stress disorder, or PTSD entered
In this state, the antelope is said to be in the
the formal psychiatric tradition through its
ideal state — relaxed and fully present. If a
inclusion in the Diagnostic and Statistic
lion arrives on the scene, the antelope then
Manual (Bloom, 1997).
experiences a sense of danger, and its body
This chequered history reflects the
moves into an active alert state, with a
nature of trauma and the after-effects —
heightened alertness, orienting itself to dan-
that of periodic and sometimes sustained
ger. If this danger increases, say by the lion
amnesia in the face of perceived life-
moving closer, then the fight or flight
threatening forces. We shall see that, by its
response kicks in. The antelope’s sym-
very nature, violent trauma becomes
pathetic nervous system will surge: its
silenced, as it becomes too much for soci-
metabolism dramatically increases, and it
ety. However, silence contributes to, and
becomes flooded with chemicals which
maintains, a destructive cycle that exists in
override the immune system. This is the
the shadow of our society. We believe that
mobilisation response. Charged with this,
since there is no real social context for
the antelope flees. If it escapes, a further
recovery to take place, then those people
flood of endorphins may arise, and it will
who are engaged daily with traumatised
slow down and resume its grazing. It has
people, and in traumatic situations, will still
escaped danger, and was not traumatised by
‘carry’ the traumatised affects of our history.
the experience....
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