Comparing the Workplace Experiences of Male and Female Police Officers: Examining Workplace Problems, Stress, Jobc Satisfaction and Consideration of Career Change
| Published date | 01 March 2011 |
| Date | 01 March 2011 |
| Author | Kimberly D. Hassell,Carol A. Archbold,Amy J. Stichman |
| DOI | 10.1350/ijps.2011.13.1.217 |
| Subject Matter | Article |
Comparing the workplace experiences of male
and female police officers: examining
workplace problems, stress, job satisfaction
and consideration of career change
Kimberly D. Hassell‡, Carol A. Archbold† and Amy J. Stichman§
‡(Corresponding author) University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Department of Criminal
Justice, Post Office Box 786, Milwaukee, WI 53201. Email: hassell@uwm.edu
†North Dakota State University, Department of Criminal Justice and Political Science, Post
Office Box 6050, Fargo, ND 58108–6050. Email: carol.archbold@ndsu.edu
§North Dakota State University, Department of Criminal Justice and Political Science, Post
Office Box 6050, Fargo, ND 58108–6050. Email: amy.stichman@ndsu.edu
Submitted 14 June 2010; revision submitted 10 October 2010; accepted
26 October 2010
Keywords: police climate, police workplace problems, police stress, police
job satisfaction, police mentoring
Kimberly D. Hassell is an Associate Professor
workplace experiences differ significantly from
of Criminal Justice at the University of
male officers. Data were collected from a survey of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee. Her research interests
patrol officers employed in a municipal, Mid-
include police organisational behaviour, police
western police department. Surveys were com-
decision-making, women police and police–
pleted by 80 per cent of the sworn patrol officers,
citizen interactions.
producing a sample of 87 officers. The analyses
Carol A. Archbold is an Associate Professor of
show that police officers who perceive a need for a
Criminal Justice at North Dakota State University.
formal mentoring programme reportedly experi-
Her research interests include police account-
ence higher levels of workplace stress. The findings
ability and liability, gender issues in policing and
also indicate that officers with higher stress levels
issues related to racial and ethnic minorities in
are less satisfied with their jobs. Further, the
the criminal justice system.
analyses indicate that female officers experience
Amy J. Stichman is an Assistant Professor of
their workplaces more similarly to, rather than
Criminal Justice at North Dakota State University.
different from, male officers. To decrease workplace
Her research interests include correctional
stress and improve job satisfaction in this depart-
administration and issues related to women in
ment, administrators must address the lack of
the criminal justice system.
mentoring — for both male and female officers.
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
This study examines the interrelationships
Police departments are more diverse today
between four workplace problems, namely the
than ever before, as police executives
need for mentoring programmes, stress, job satis-
acknowledge the benefits of a representative
International Journal of Police
Science and Management,
faction and consideration of making career
department (National Research Council,
Vol. 13 No. 1, 2011, pp. 37–53.
DOI: 10.1350/ijps.2011.13.1.217
changes, to determine whether female officers’
2004; Williams, 2000). Even though
Page 37
Comparing the workplace experiences of male and female police officers
women are still under-represented at all
problems: the need for mentoring pro-
ranks, the numbers of female officers have
grammes; stress; job satisfaction; and con-
expanded considerably in many depart-
sideration of making career changes. More
ments (National Research Council). The
specifically, we ask whether there are differ-
integration of these women into the work
ences between male and female officers in
environment, however, has not been with-
their workplace experiences, stress levels,
out some degree of difficulty (Balkin, 1988;
job satisfaction and consideration of chang-
Hassell & Brandl, 2009; Morash & Haarr,
ing careers. Theories on women in the
1995; National Center for Women and
workplace suggest that women may experi-
Policing, 2002; Texiera, 2002; Wells & Alt,
ence more discord, and less harmony, in
2005). The occupational culture of policing
departments where they represent a smaller
is so entrenched that policing remains a
proportion of the workforce (Archbold &
very masculine profession, although some
Schulz, 2009; Kanter, 1977; Stichman,
argue that increased diversification and con-
Hassell, & Archbold, 2010). Further, we
temporary policing philosophies have
investigate which workplace factors may
begun to erode many of the values that
influence officers’ workplace stress, job
typify traditional police culture (Chan,
satisfaction and consideration of changing
1996, 2001, 2007). Even so, research indi-
careers. We include a measure of workplace
cates that women are still considered excep-
experiences largely overlooked among
tions to the normative view of law
police scholars: mentoring. Mentoring is
enforcement (Burke & Mikkelsen, 2004;
the deliberate pairing of an experienced
Kerber, Andes, & Mittler, 1977) and face
person with a less experienced person with
many workplace problems not experienced
the goal of improving assimilation, career
by male officers, most notably discrimina-
development and psychosocial support
tion, isolation and sexual harassment (Burke
(Sosik & Godshalk, 2000). While one-third
& Mikkelsen; Hassell & Brandl; Hassell,
of the nation’s major companies have formal
Archbold, & Schulz, in press; Morash &
mentoring programmes (Ragins, Cotton, &
Haarr; National Center for Women and
Miller, 2000), very little research has
Policing, 2002; Texiera).
explored mentoring in studies of the
Research also indicates that women in
police.
police work generally report greater levels
of stress resulting from negative workplace
experiences (Burke & Mikkelsen, 2005;
LITERATURE REVIEW
Hassell & Brandl, 2009; Morash & Haarr,
1995). High levels of stress among law
Importance of workplace climate
enforcement officers have collateral effects:
Workplace climate refers to the nature of
job dissatisfaction, absenteeism, premature
interactions among organisational members.
retirement and attrition (Anderson, Litzen-
Dennison (1996, p. 644) defines climate as
berger, & Plecas, 2002; Ellison, 2004;
‘a situation and its link to thoughts, feelings,
Ellison & Genz, 1983; Greene & del
and behaviors of organizational members.
Carmen, 2002). Uncovering the causes of
Thus, it is temporal, subjective, and often
workplace stress, while investigating the
subject to direct manipulation by people
potential effects of that stress, can assist law
with power and influence.’ Climate is,
enforcement executives in producing a
therefore, how an organisation is perceived,
more welcoming and diverse workforce.
experienced and interpreted by its mem-
In the current study, we examine the
bers. A negative organisational climate pro-
interrelationships between four workplace
duces workplace problems that can impact
Page 38
Hassell, Archbold and Stichman
its members’ levels of stress, job satisfaction
1995; Timmins & Hainsworth, 1989;
and organisational commitment (Hassell &
Wexler & Logan, 1983). The National
Brandl, 2009; Morash & Haarr, 1995, Haar
Center for Women and Policing (1998, p. 4)
& Morash, 1999). Further, there is a grow-
concluded:
ing body of literature that indicates that
female officers experience greater work-
Nationwide studies consistently find that
place problems than male officers (Haarr,
discrimination and sexual harassment are
1997; Haarr & Morash, 1999, 2004; Hassell
pervasive in police departments and that
& Brandl; Martin, 1990; Morash & Haarr,
supervisors and commanders not only
1995; Morash, Haarr, & Gonyea, 2006;
tolerate such practices by others, but also
National Center for Women and Policing,
are frequently perpetrators themselves
2002; Texiera, 2002; Wells & Alt, 2005).
. . . Once on the job, women are fre-
These findings are often presented within
quently intimidated, harassed, and mali-
the framework of organisational theories
ciously thwarted, especially as they move
supporting the idea that numeric and/or
up the ranks.
proportional representation — in this
instance, non-equivalent representation of
males and females — affect social relations
Research also indicates that women in the
within organisations (Archbold & Schulz,
workplace are subjected to social isolation,
2008; Childs & Krook, 2008; Dahlerup,
and may find it difficult to establish mentor-
1988; Kanter, 1977; Simmel, 1977).
ing relationships (Krimmel & Gormley,
2003). There has been little research on
Workplace problems
mentoring in law enforcement even though
Research shows that female officers experi-
mentoring programmes have been heralded
ence a variety of problems not experienced
as ‘an emerging trend in the new millen-
by their male counterparts. Workplace
nium’ for most organisations (Ragins, Cot-
problems, in this context, are negative and
ton, & Miller, 2000, p. 177). Most police
may have detrimental consequences, such as
departments limit their formal mentoring
dysfunctional levels of stress, job satisfaction
to field training officers (FTOs). FTOs act
and poor job performance (Hassell &
as mentors by assisting officers in becoming
Brandl, 2009). The most common problem
acclimated to the actual demands of patrol
facing women in law enforcement is sexual
work during the initial recruitment phase
harassment (Collins, 2004 National Center
(Fagan, 1988). Once field training is over,
for Women and Policing, 2002; Texiera,
many officers solicit informal mentoring by
2002; Wells &...
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