Exploring the Impact of Police Officer Education Level on Allegations of Police Misconduct
| Date | 01 December 2008 |
| Author | Jennifer Manis,Carol A. Archbold,Kimberly D. Hassell |
| DOI | 10.1350/ijps.2008.10.4.102 |
| Published date | 01 December 2008 |
| Subject Matter | Article |
Exploring the impact of police officer
education level on allegations of police
misconduct
Jennifer Manis†, Carol A. Archbold‡ and Kimberly D. Hassell§
†North Dakota State University, Department of Criminal Justice & Political Science,
1616 12th Ave N, Fargo, ND 58105-5101. Tel: (1)701 231 5698; Fax: (1)701 231 5877;
email: jennifer.manis@ndsu.edu
‡(Corresponding author) North Dakota State University, Dept of Criminal Justice &
Political Science, Fargo, ND 58105. Tel: (1)701 231 5697; Fax: (1)701 231 5877;
email: carol.archbold@ndsu.edu
§University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Helen Bader School of Social Welfare, 1115 Enderis
Hall, Post Office Box 786, Milwaukee, WI 53201. Tel: (1)414 229 4110; Fax: (1)414 229
5311; email: hassell@uwm.edu
Received 12 October 2007; revised and accepted 12 February 2008
Keywords: police complaints, police discipline, police education, police
entrance requirements, college/university degree
Jennifer Manis is a doctoral student at North
versus non-CJ degrees) earned by police officers
Dakota State University in Fargo, ND. Her
on both informal and formal complaints filed
research interests include a variety of issues
against them. The findings of this study reveal
related to policing, white collar crime, environ-
that there are no statistical differences between
mental crime, and sex offenders.
patrol officers with CJ degrees and patrol officers
Carol Archbold is an Assistant Professor of
with non-CJ degrees in regard to the frequency
Criminal Justice at North Dakota State University
and type of complaints that are filed against them
in Fargo, ND. Her research interests include
by citizens and police supervisors.
police accountability and liability, gender issues
in policing, and issues related to racial and
ethnic minorities in the criminal justice system.
INTRODUCTION
Kimberly D. Hassell is an Assistant Professor of
Police scholars and practitioners have long
Criminal Justice at the University of Wisconsin-
debated the impact of higher education on
Milwaukee. Her research interests include police
police officer performance. The call for
patrol practices, police organisational behaviour,
higher education and improved police
and police-citizen relationships.
training originated with recommendations
from the National Commission on Law
Observance and Enforcement (1931), and
ABSTRACT
was later reinforced by suggestions from the
The study presented in this paper examines the
President’s Commission on Law Enforce-
relationship between police officers’ education
ment and Administration of Justice (1967),
levels, types of degrees, and formal and informal
and the National Advisory Commission on
complaints filed against patrol officers. This study
Criminal Justice Standards and Goals
International Journal of Police
Science and Management,
is the first of its kind to examine the impact of
(1973). These groups believed that by
Vol. 10 No. 4, 2008, pp. 509–523.
DOI: 10.1350/ijps.2008.10.4.102
the type of degree (Criminal Justice (CJ) degree
increasing formal education standards and
Page 509
Exploring the impact of police officer education level on police misconduct
improving the quality of training, policing
four-year college degrees (Cascio, 1977;
would become more professionalised in the
Cohen & Chaiken, 1972; Finnegan, 1976;
United States.
Sanderson, 1977). This was also the case
The sentiment of these Commissions
with a few of the more recent studies on
regarding the impact of higher education
this topic (Lersch & Kunzman, 2001; Smith
on police officer performance has been
& Aamodt, 1997; Wilson, 1999). A study by
studied extensively over the last three dec-
Kappeler, Sapp, and Carter (1992) is one of
ades (Roberg & Bonn, 2004). Many of the
only a few studies to have used data from a
early studies examined the impact of higher
police agency where all of the police
education on police officer attitudes. For
officers have some level of college experi-
example, several studies compared levels of
ence (ranging from two or more years of
authoritarianism in police officers with col-
college without completing a four-year
lege degrees with those of police officers
degree, through the completion of a four-
without college degrees (Dalley, 1975;
year degree). Kappeler et al. found sig-
Guller, 1972; Parker, Donnelly, Marcus, &
nificant differences in complaints filed by
Kowalewski, 1976; Smith, Locke & Walker,
citizens against police officers who had
1968; Trojanowicz & Nicholson, 1976).
earned college degrees compared with
Other studies have focused on how higher
those officers who had not earned degrees,
education impacts on police officers’ views
but suggested that additional research be
towards racial/ethnic minorities (Weiner,
conducted for further verification of those
1976), as well as on levels of professionalism
findings.
(Miller & Fry, 1978) and on standards of
The study presented in this paper
service to the community (Miller & Fry;
responds to that call for additional research
Regoli, 1976).
by providing a contemporary look at the
This body of literature also includes
relationship between police officers’ educa-
research that focuses on the impact of
tion levels and complaints of police miscon-
higher education on a variety of police
duct. This study is unique because it utilises
performance measures including: perform-
both formal and informal1 complaints filed
ance in the police academy (Sanderson,
against police officers working in a Mid-
1977); evaluation ratings given by super-
western police agency. In addition, this
visors (Finnegan, 1976; Roberg 1978;
study also examines the impact of the type
Smith & Aamodt, 1997; Truxillo, Bennett,
of college major (Criminal Justice (CJ)
& Collins, 1998); the use of deadly force/
major compared with non-CJ majors) on
non-lethal force (Fyfe, 1988; Paoline &
complaints filed against patrol officers.
Terrill, 2007; Terrill & Mastrofski, 2002);
involvement in liability incidents (Carter &
Sapp, 1989); and citizen complaints filed
POLICE EDUCATION LEVEL AND
against the police (Cohen & Chaiken,
CITIZEN COMPLAINTS: WHAT DO WE
1972; Kappeler, Sapp, & Carter, 1992;
KNOW?
Lersch & Kunzman, 2001; Sanderson;
All of the existing studies on this topic have
Wilson, 1999).
concluded that police officers with a college
A significant portion of the higher
education are less likely to have complaints
education and police misconduct literature
filed against them compared with police
features research that was conducted several
officers with a high-school education
decades ago. Research from that time
(Cohen & Chaiken, 1972; Kappeler et al.,
period often used data where it was uncom-
1992; Lersch & Kunzman; 2001; Sander-
mon for most police officers to have earned
son, 1977; Wilson, 1999). Some of the
Page 510
Manis, Archbold and Hassell
research has also revealed a difference in
the research designs used in all of these
complaints when comparing police officers
studies have varied tremendously. For
who have earned four-year degrees with
example, some of the early studies used
police officers who have earned some col-
samples that only consisted of male police
lege credits or who have earned two-year
officers. Using a cohort research design,
degrees (Kappeler et al., 1992; Sanderson,
Sanderson (1977) used a group of male
1977; Wilson, 1999). In contrast to these
police officers from the Los Angeles Police
studies, Lersch and Kunzman found that
Department to explore the impact of officer
‘there were no significant differences
education level on the frequency and types
between deputies with a two-year degree
of complaints filed against the police.
and those with a four-year degree in terms
Cohen and Chaiken (1972) used a group of
of total citizen complaints, administrative
male police officers from the New York
referrals, and sustained complaints’ (2001, p.
City Police Department who were part of
167). Additional research is needed to
the same academy class to explore the
determine the impact of higher education
impact of higher education on officer per-
on police officer performance — specific-
formance. Clearly, the all-male samples used
ally complaints of police misconduct filed
in these two studies reflect the ‘sign of the
against police officers.
times’ in regard to the lack of females in
In addition to the frequency of com-
policing at that time.
plaints filed against officers, some studies
The sample size and location of the
revealed that higher education also has an
police agencies used in some of the pre-
impact on the number of sustained com-
vious studies has also varied. Most of the
plaints. Sanderson (1977) discovered that
previous studies used samples from large law
police officers with four-year degrees had
enforcement agencies (Cohen & Chaiken,
an average sustained complaint rate approx-
1972; Lersch & Kunzman, 2001; Sander-
imately one-third of the rates of officers
son, 1977; Wilson, 1999), while only one
with two-year degrees or no college degree.
study used a medium-sized police agency
Kappeler et al. (1992) also found that police
(Kappeler et al., 1992). Each of the previous
officers with four-year degrees had sig-
studies used police agencies from a variety
nificantly fewer founded citizen-initiated
of regions across the United States includ-
complaints; however, police officers with
ing the Midwest (Kappeler et al., 1992),
four-year college degrees received more...
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