Good practice case studies in the advancement of women in policing
| Author | Aiyana Ward,Tim Prenzler |
| Date | 01 December 2016 |
| DOI | 10.1177/1461355716666847 |
| Published date | 01 December 2016 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
Article
International Journal of
Police Science & Management
Good practice case studies in the
2016, Vol. 18(4) 242–250
ª The Author(s) 2016
advancement of women in policing
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DOI: 10.1177/1461355716666847
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Aiyana Ward
School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Griffith University, Australia
Tim Prenzler
University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia
Abstract
Research shows that increasing the number of female officers is beneficial to policing. However, women remain a minority
in police departments throughout the world, and the better performing departments have, on the whole, achieved female
representation at only 25%, with senior women at 10%. There is also very little research on effective strategies for making
large improvements. Consequently, this study aimed to identify and explain above average achievements in the status of
women in policing. Following a worldwide search, five cases were identified: one involved female recruits (North Wales),
two involved officer numbers (Cumbria and Surrey), and two involved women in senior ranks (Hertfordshire and South
Africa). Efforts to identify possible influences were limited by a lack of information about strategies, including in response
to requests for information. However, there were indicators that outcomes were related to senior management
commitment, explicit targets, monitoring, flexible employment and a range of support mechanisms such as mentoring
and leadership programmes. The findings emphasize the need for more research on what works in optimizing women’s
participation in police work.
Keywords
Women police, equal employment opportunity, gender equity, affirmative action, sex discrimination
Submitted 16 Jun 2016, Revise received 28 Jul 2016, accepted 03 Aug 2016
Background
attract fewer complaints, are less likely to resort to force
and are less likely to engage in the use of excessive force
Policing has traditionally been regarded as an intrinsically
(Bazley et al., 2007; Lonsway et al., 2003; Porter and Pren-
male occupation, largely due to the physical demands of the
zler, 2015; Schuck and Rabe-Hemp, 2007). In sufficient
job. Women were seen as lacking the strength and courage
numbers, women can have a transformative effect in the
to deal with violence, confrontation and danger (Martin and
areas of integrity and service through incremental cultural
Jurik, 2007). The first female appointments, made in the
change (Dick et al., 2014). The employment of women
early part of the 20th century, mainly involved social work
police also contributes to economic independence and free-
roles related to women and children (Heidensohn, 1992).
dom for women, in both developed and developing coun-
The appointment of female officers, and the expansion of
tries, through engagement in a stable employment field and
their roles, were often fiercely resisted by male officers.
long-term careers; as well as in better delivery of
Resistance continued into the 1970s, when performance
research in the United States showed that female officers
were as effective as their male counterparts, tended to be
Corresponding author:
better in areas such as service and the diffusion of conflict,
Tim Prenzler, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland
and had public support (Bloch and Anderson, 1974; Sichel
4556, Australia.
et al., 1978). Subsequent research has shown that women
Email: tprenzler@usc.edu.au
Ward and Prenzler
243
government services in security and crime prevention
suited to police work, or they may simply think that women
(Bastick, 2014; United Nations Development Program
are still not welcome (Dick and Cassell, 2002; Dick and
[UNDP], 2007).
Hyde, 2006; Lonsway et al., 2002; Silvestri, 2003). There is
Equitable practices have, in general, been forced onto
more research evidence available about low progression
police departments through equal employment opportunity
rates within policing. There is some evidence that women
legislation, with pioneering Acts in the United States in
are less likely to see policing as a job for life and therefore
1972 and England and Wales in 1975 (Jones, 1986; Martin,
leave for another career before moving very far up the
1991). In many locations, adoption of equity principles
ranks, that some women leave policing for home duties at
required litigation. In the United States, the intensity of
a point early in their career, and that female officers may
resistance led to consent decrees and court orders requiring
have lower career aspirations than males (Boni and Circelli,
affirmative action quotas for female (and minority)
2002; Prenzler et al., 2010). At the same time, it is also
employment. Quotas played a significant role in the
clear that women feel it is much harder to get promoted or
advancement of women in these cases. However, quotas
obtain desirable appointments, due in part to sexist attitudes
are generally seen as being in conflict with merit criteria
as well as isolation, a lack of role models, lack of encour-
and they fell out of favour in the 1990s (Martin and Jurik,
agement and shift work or full-time work requirements
2007).
(Adams, 2001; Boni and Circelli, 2002; Dick and Hyde,
The available research suggests that an equal access
2006; Silvestri, 2003). A review by Brown et al. (2006)
policy which entails removing discriminatory barriers can
found that 35% female representation was necessary for
lead to dramatic increases in female numbers across police
women to form an adequate ‘critical mass’ within police
organizations (Lonsway et al., 2003; Prenzler, 2015). Com-
departments that would help overcome gender stereotypes
mon barriers include small quotas for women, inappropri-
and discrimination and support flexible family-friendly
ate physical entry tests (such as obstacle course tests),
policies (also Brough et al., 2016). Most police departments
all-male selection panels and full-time employment
are still well below this threshold.
requirements. Progressive police departments now have
The challenge then concerns how to optimize the poten-
non-discriminatory language polices, non-sexist appoint-
tial contributions of women in policing, and the many ben-
ment criteria, mixed selection panels, flexible employment
efits to women of a policing career, through supportive
options, and anti-harassment policies and support officers.
policies that also recognize the need for merit (Bastick,
Non-discriminatory policies and procedures are often sup-
2014; UNDP, 2007). One potential source of answers about
ported by moderate forms of affirmative action, such as
what works involves an examination of high-performing
targeted recruitment campaigns, pre-application support
departments in the area of gender. There is some very
classes for women and female mentoring programmes
limited evidence concerning a small number of depart-
(Martin and Jurik, 2007). Recent international research
ments that have reported unusually high numbers of female
suggests that moderate equity programmes involving most
recruitment and female representation, and/or large num-
of these mechanisms can generate a fairly common profile
bers of women in senior ranks (Brown et al., 2014; Home
of around 33% female applicants and recruits, 25% sworn
Office, 2010; Prenzler and Sinclair, 2013). These depart-
officers, fairly proportionate representation across special-
ments, and others that might be found, could be examined
ist units and up to 20% female senior officers (Brown et al.,
to: (a) map indicators of sustained high performance and
2014; Cordner and Cordner, 2011; Home Office, 2010;
(b) identify the strategies that appear to lie behind outstand-
Prenzler and Sinclair, 2013). This compares with large
ing outcomes.
numbers of police departments, including many in the
United States and Canada, with fewer than 20% female
Method
officers. At the same time, studies suggest that the in-
flows from recruitment over the last three decades are now
The idea for this study was stimulated by the questions
coming to an end, with overall numbers flat-lining and
outlined above regarding the factors behind indicators of
increases in promotions are also likely to eventually flat-
success. The authors sought to identify police departments
line. In some cases, this situation appears to be exacerbated
performing above average in gender equity, based on quan-
by higher rates of female attrition.
titative data, and then investigate organizational initiatives
There is very little in the research literature to explain
that may have influenced the results. There is now a well-
why women apply to police departments at rates lower than
established framework for evaluating gender equity in poli-
men, even where equity policies have been in place for
cing based on indicators covering the main gateways of a
decades. It is possible that a large proportion of women
police career and officers’ employment experiences:
accept stereotypes about the physical demands and danger
recruitment and sworn officer numbers, deployment,...
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