Like two peas in a pod? Explaining friendship selection processes related to victimization and offending
| Author | Stijn Ruiter,Gerbert Kraaykamp,Jochem Tolsma,Josja J. Rokven |
| DOI | 10.1177/1477370815617186 |
| Published date | 01 March 2016 |
| Date | 01 March 2016 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
European Journal of Criminology
2016, Vol. 13(2) 231 –256
© The Author(s) 2015
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DOI: 10.1177/1477370815617186
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Like two peas in a pod?
Explaining friendship
selection processes related to
victimization and offending
Josja J. Rokven
Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law
Enforcement, The Netherlands
Jochem Tolsma
Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Stijn Ruiter
Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement; The Netherlands Utrecht University,
The Netherlands
Gerbert Kraaykamp
Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Abstract
In this paper, we examine the similarity between friends with respect to experiences with crime
among a sample of Dutch individuals. We investigate the extent to which offenders, victims and
victim-offenders (de)select friends differently and, subsequently, who (de)selects whom and why.
We use data from the annual Dutch panel survey CrimeNL, which includes ego-centered network
measures at each wave for more than 500 participants, ranging from 16 to 45 years old. Results
show that offenders terminate friendships more often than non-offenders, and they have a higher
likelihood of selecting new friends, regardless of prior victimization experiences. Furthermore,
homophily with respect to crime involvement exists; both offenders and victims are more likely
to select new friends who are similarly involved in crime. Risky lifestyles to a large extent explain
why people select offenders as friends, whereas third parties (that is, parents and the pre-existing
network of individuals) influence people’s decision to engage in friendships with victims of crime.
Nevertheless, after taking individual preferences, meeting opportunities and third parties into
account, offenders and victims are still more likely to select friends with similar crime experiences.
Corresponding author:
Josja J. Rokven, Department of Sociology, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen,
the Netherlands.
Email: j.rokven@maw.ru.nl
617186EUC0010.1177/1477370815617186European Journal of CriminologyRokven et al.
research-article2015
Article
232 European Journal of Criminology 13(2)
Keywords
Friendship, offending, panel data, preferences, selection, victimization
Introduction
Individuals tend to associate with those similar to them. This phenomenon, usually
referred to as ‘homophily’, has been found across a wide range of social relationships
(for example, marriage, cohabitating, friendships) and along many different dimensions
of similarity (for example, religion, ethnicity, education) (McPherson et al., 2001).
Similarities between friends are also a classic subject in criminology (Miller, 2010).
Delinquent peers have been shown to be a very important factor for explaining criminal
behavior. Given that both criminal behavior and victimization yield negative conse-
quences for the individuals involved as well as for society as a whole (Hanson et al.,
2010), it is important to further explore the extent of and explanations for friendship
similarity with respect to experiences with crime.
The association between delinquent peer affiliations and criminal behavior is one of
the most replicated findings in criminology. There has been quite some debate, however,
on the causal mechanisms between peer delinquency and individuals’ own involvement
in crime (Matsueda and Anderson, 1998; Warr, 2002). One explanation for such homo-
phily in delinquent peer networks is that delinquent individuals intentionally seek each
other’s company (Glueck and Glueck, 1950; Hirschi, 1969). This process may be caused
by the formation of friendships with similar others (selection) but also by breaking ties
with dissimilar others (deselection) (Kandel, 1978). An alternative explanation is that
friends influence people’s delinquent behavior (Akers, 1973; Sutherland, 1947). Research
examining selection and influence suggests that both processes take place (Warr, 2002).
Although victimization research has paid little attention to friendship networks, recent
research on bullying in schools provides evidence that victims of bullying are more
likely to engage in friendships with others who were also victimized (selection) and,
once formed, they are less likely to break friendships with similar others (deselection)
(Sente et al., 2013; Sijtsema et al., 2012). We will assess to what extent homophily can
also be observed for offending and victimization among a sample of mainly adults.
Although several decades of research have shown a strong association between
offending and victimization (Lauritsen et al., 1991; Rokven et al., 2013; Smith and Ecob,
2007), prior research on friendship selection processes among victims and offenders has
entirely ignored the overlap between victims and offenders. Treating victims and offend-
ers as essentially unrelated groups may lead to a loss of vital information on the selection
processes of victim-offenders. If victim-offenders are distinct from victims-only and
offenders-only, as research suggests (Zaykowski, 2015), they may also select their friends
differently. Furthermore, understanding the friendship (de)selection processes of victims
and offenders may help to explain the victim–offender overlap; if victims are more likely
to befriend offenders (selection), and friends of offenders are more likely to become
offenders themselves (influence), then understanding the friendship selection processes
of victims may help to understand why they would have an elevated risk of becoming
offenders.
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