Maximizing reflexivity and praxis by recognizing and counteracting the constraints imposed by stimulus-response learning
| DOI | 10.1177/0144739412462170 |
| Author | Raymond J Higbea,Robert Peters |
| Published date | 01 September 2012 |
| Date | 01 September 2012 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
Article
Maximizing reflexivity
and praxis by recognizing
and counteracting the
constraints imposed by
stimulus-response learning
Robert Peters and Raymond J Higbea
Western Michigan University, USA
Abstract
The Task Force on Educating for Excellence in the MPA Degree acknowledged the
essential role of active learning when it advocated the use of pedagogical strategies such
as classroom exercises and collaborative projects with agencies. The extent to which
these strategies foster reflexivity and praxis is limited by stimulus-response learning, i.e.,
students deciphering what the instructor wants and producing the appropriate
responses/materials. To measure the students’ preferences for stimulus-response
learning, the authors developed a questionnaire that was distributed to students enrolled
in MPA courses at a mid-western university. The findings suggest the students’ strong
preference for stimulus-response learning arises from a fixation on maximizing grades
within the allotted time for studies. Given this finding, a program’s success in cultivating
reflexivity and praxis is impacted by the adoption of strategies that counteract the
preference for stimulus-response learning and thereby encourage students to become
more self-directed. Several of these strategies are discussed in the paper’s final section.
Keywords
Rote learning, learning preferences, learning processes, graduate education
Introduction
The Task Force on Educating for Excellence in the Master of Public Administration
degree noted ‘the core mission of those offering the MPA degree must be to develop the
Corresponding author:
Robert Peters, Western Michigan University, 1903 West Michigan Avenue, Kalamazoo, MI 49008-5440 United
States.
e-mail: robert.peters@wmich.edu
Teaching Public Administration
30(2) 133–148
ªThe Author(s) 2012
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DOI: 10.1177/0144739412462170
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capacity of graduates to exercise delegated public authority wisely, effectively, and
lawfully’ (Henry et al., 2009: 122). To carry out this mission, the task force, and Raffel’s
(2009) response, noted professional education should incorporate didactic and experi-
ential instruction that (1) develops an understanding of the political and economic
environment along with the essential knowledge and skills for functioning in these
complex environs; (2) fosters effective and ethical governance; (3) encourages students
to think reflectively and reflexively about core values such as representativeness and
responsiveness, their contributions to the public interest, and their authority and
responsibilities within the parameters established by constitutional principles (Henry
et al., 2009; Raffel, 2009). If these components are to be reflected in the attitudes and
behaviors of MPA students and alumni rather than rote definitions that are memorized on
the path to graduation, MPA programs must develop the reflective, critical, and reflexive
capabilities of their students (Henry et al., 2009; Raffel, 2009).
Althoughthe cultivation of reflective,critical, and reflexive skillsis facilitated by active
learning strategies, the effectiveness of these strategies is mitigated by a preference for
stimulus-response learning (Baeten et al., 2008; Gijbels et al., 2008). As is suggested by
the nomenclature, stimulus-response learning relies on the repeated use of stimuli to gen-
erate the intended responses. However, instead of consistently relying on one form of sti-
muli, instructors typically utilize varied and layered stimuli. Lectures, PowerPoint
presentations, and class discussionsprovide an initial indicationof the material the instruc-
tor deems to be important as well as the appropriate perspectives and problem-solving
techniques. These parameters are reinforced by the subsequent use of quizzes, problem
sets, case studies, group projects, etc. By the time the students confront course assess-
ments, they areconditioned to (1) apply specificmethods to analyze a questionrather than
evaluating these approaches along with the methods addressed by their previous courses
and readings to determine the most appropriate method of analysis; (2) rely on the key-
words and cues used in classroom activities and course assignments to derive the appro-
priate responses (Boesen et al., 2010; Choudhury et al., 2010; Uskul and Eaton, 2005).
Questions such as ‘what material will be covered by the exam,’ ‘what do I need to
know,’ ‘what are you (the instructor) looking for,’ and ‘what rubric will be used to grade
the exercise,’ are indicative of the stimulus-response mindset. Although the strategy
maximizes the proportion of students who demonstrate mastery of the material (Peters,
2011), the outcome is achieved at the expense of students fully developing their
reflective, critical, and reflexive skills. Stimulus-response learning also confounds
efforts to disentangle the extent to which student responses measure learning and
understanding, the internalization of attitudes, values and behaviors, or an unconscious
reaction to stimuli (Billing, 2007; Connor-Greene, 2000; Doyle, 1988; Lithner, 2008;
Ogilvie, 2009; Taylor and White 2006; Watters and Watters, 2007).
Given stimulus-response learning’s adverse impact on the development of reflective,
critical, and reflexive skills and the absence of measures of student preferences for
stimulus-response learning,the authors developed a questionnaire that is basedon the liter-
ature discussedin the next section. The questionnaire, as specifiedin the methodology sec-
tion, wastested and subsequentlydistributed to studentswho were enrolled in MPA courses
at a mid-western university. An analysis of the students’ responses suggests a strong
134 Teaching Public Administration 30(2)
134
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