New Zealand adult internet child pornography offenders
| Date | 02 November 2015 |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.1108/JCP-01-2015-0001 |
| Published date | 02 November 2015 |
| Pages | 262-278 |
| Author | Mnthali Price,Ian Lambie,Ariana Marie Krynen |
| Subject Matter | Health & social care,Criminology & forensic psychology,Criminal psychology |
New Zealand adult internet child
pornography offenders
Mnthali Price, Ian Lambie and Ariana Marie Krynen
Mnthali Price is Clinical
Psychology Intern and Ian
Lambie is Associate Professor
in Clinical Psychology, both at
the Department of Psychology,
The University of Auckland,
Auckland, New Zealand.
Ariana Marie Krynen is based at
the Department of Psychology,
The University of Auckland,
Auckland, New Zealand.
Abstract
Purpose –The purposeof this paper is to identify the demographiccharacteristics, psychological and mental
health difficulties, victimisationhistories, and offendingbehaviours of New Zealandchild pornography offenders
(CPOs) who presentedto community-based treatment. Findings are comparedwith national and international
research, and withpopulation norms. Such comparisons can help identify factors that may play a role in the
development of child pornography (CP)consumption and potential treatmentneeds for this population.
Design/methodology/approach –A file audit of assessment information and service exit reports was
conducted of 46 CPOs who were referred to community-based treatment service in New Zealand.
Findings –CPOs were predominantly male, European, and unemployed. Most CPOs were single or
separated/divorced, and had no friends or one to five friends, which indicates possible social functioning
difficulties, including intimacy. Mental health issues, such as depression and anxiety, loneliness, and
childhood abuse appear to be elevated among CPOs in comparison with general population norms. Prior to
referral, one-third had engaged in contact sexual offending and most had no non-sexual offending history.
CP was oftenin the form of photos or images, and contained Europeanpre-pubescent females. CPOs’mental
health, social isolation,intimacy deficits, andchildhood abuse could be treatment targets for this population.
Originality/value –Limited research has been conducted concerning New Zealand CPOs. Furthermore,
studies often do not compare findings with general population norms, which can help identify factors
prevalent among the CPOs and treatment needs for this population.
Keywords New Zealand, Sexual abuse, Sexual offending, Child abuse, Child pornography, Internet offenders
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Child pornography (CP) consumption is a fairly recent development in sexual offending
behaviour, and estimates suggest that it is on the rise (Dauvergne and Turner, 2010; Middleton
et al., 2009; Wolak et al., 2011). CP consumption can include viewing and distributing CP, using
the internet as a means to meet or engage in either online or offline sexual behaviour with minors,
contacting other individuals who engage in child sexual offending behaviour, and/or promoting
the trafficking of minors. With the increasing availability of the internet and accessibility of its
contents, without intervention the rise in CP consumption, sexual exploitation of minors and
subsequent negative impact for these victims will likely continue.
The existing literature on CP consumption has explored four principle areas: theories of sexual
offending, the extent to which CP consumption may or may not be typical of sexual offending
against children and adolescents in general (i.e. offline/contact sexual (CS) offending), typologies,
and recommended intervention strategies for CP offenders (CPOs) (Ward and Beech, 2006;
Ward and Siegert, 2002; Wortley and Smallbone, 2006). However, due to the recency of
this internet offending behaviour, literature investigating the nature and development of CP
consumption and recommended guidelines for its treatment and management is limited.
Received 25 January 2015
Revised 17 February 2015
Accepted 18 February 2015
The Vodafone New Zealand
Foundation commissioned this
research project on adults who
have engaged in internet sexual
offending and have been assessed
by the Adult Internet Offender
team at the SAFE Network.
A special thanks to Jacqui Dillon,
Gabrielle Whitehead, Nola Forsyth,
the Adult Internet Offender team,
and the staff from SAFE Network
who generously provided their
assistance and support throughout
this project. The authors would
also like to thank Vodafone
New Zealand for funding this
research.Disclosure: No competing
financial interests exist.
PAGE262
j
JOURNAL OF CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY
j
VOL. 5 NO. 4 2015, pp. 262-278, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 2009-3829 DOI 10.1108/JCP-01-2015-0001
Prevalence and recidivism
Given the nature of the internet, it is extremely difficult to estimate the number of people accessing
CP, or the extent to which such content is available (Taylor and Quayle, 2003). However,
estimates suggest that each week 20,000 indecent images of minors are uploaded to the internet
(NSPCC Press Release, 2009) and that commercial CP is a $20 billion industry worldwide
(U.S. Congress. House of Representatives, Committee on Energy and Commerce, Subcommittee
on Oversight and Investigations, 2006). Figures suggest CP consumption is on the rise, with the
Internet Watch Foundation (2013) identifying 13,182 webpages containing child sexual abuse
content, which represented a 49 per cent increase since 2009 (Internet Watch Foundation, 2009).
However, this may be attributed to changing patterns of internet hosting (Internet Watch Foundation,
2010). Rates of arrests and convictions for CP possession have also increased significantly over time
(Motivans and Kyckelhan, 2007; Wolak et al., 2005, 2011), suggesting a rise in this type of
sexual offender.
Rates of recidivism for CP consumption are also difficult to determine due to the limited research
in this area, the relative newness of the internet, limited follow-up periods utilised, and most
studies using officially recorded offences as the measure of recidivism. Of the few studies that
have investigated recidivism rates among CPOs, Wakeling et al. (2011) found sexual reconviction
rates of 2.1 and 3.1 per cent at one- and two-year follow-up periods, respectively, while a
meta-analysis found a 4.6 per cent recidivism rate after a 1.5-6 year follow-up period (Seto et al.,
2011). However, studies using self-report as the measure for recidivism indicate recidivism rates
for CP consumption may be significantly higher than these findings suggest. For example, Kuhle
et al. (2012) found 80 per cent of their sample self-reported CP consumption post-treatment,
of which none had been detected by authorities.
There is evidently some cross-over between on and offline sexual offending. Hanson and
Babchishin (2009) found 18.5 per cent of CPOs had committed a prior CS offence (i.e. an offline
sexual offence) against a minor, while Seto et al. (2011) found 12 per cent had committed a prior
CS offence as identified by official records. However, 55 per cent of Seto et al.’s (2011) sample
self-reported having committed a prior CS offence. Similarly, among a sample of CPOs seeking
treatment for their sexual interests and/or behaviour, Neutze et al. (2011) found 57 per cent
reported having a prior CS offence. Recidivism of CS offences among CPOs, however, appear to
be low, with rates of 2.0 per cent (Seto et al., 2011) and 0 per cent (Neutze et al., 2012) found.
The aforementioned findings suggest that while there is a group of offenders who commit both
offline and online sexual offences, there is also a separate group who only commit online crimes
where CP consumption is not related to CS offending. While some argue that viewing CP may act
as a diversion from CS offending (McManus et al., 2011), there have been questions raised
regarding the potential escalation of CP consumption to involve CS offending. Although research
has been conducted investigating what distinguishes those who do and do not act upon
impulses to engage in CS offending against minors (e.g. Houtepen et al., 2014; McManus et al.,
2014; Seto, 2008, 2013), the link between online and offline sexual offending behaviour remains
relatively unclear.
Characteristics of CPOs
A small number of studies have identified common demographic and personal characteristics of
CPOs. Similar to other sexual offenders, female CPOs tend to be rare, with adult males making up
the majority of these offenders (Babchishin et al., 2011; Elliott and Ashfield, 2011; Wolak et al.,
2008). CPOs appear to be predominantly European (Babchishin et al., 2011; Webb et al., 2007;
Wolak et al., 2011), are usually unemployed (Wolak et al., 2011), and most do not have a criminal
history (Babchishin et al., 2011).
Research has compared CPOs with CS offenders (CSOs) and mixed offenders (MO) (i.e. online
and offline offenders) across a range of personal and risk-related characteristics to help identify
what factors, if any, are involved in sexual offending in general and what factors are unique to CP
consumption. The first meta-analysis by Babchishin et al. (2011) found CPOs were younger, had
experienced less physical abuse, fewer cognitive distortions regarding the appropriateness of
sexual contact with children, higher rates of victim empathy, and higher sexual deviancy in
VOL. 5 NO. 4 2015
j
JOURNAL OF CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY
j
PAGE263
To continue reading
Request your trial