Police officers killed on duty: Comparing the influence of social investment on line of duty deaths of men and women officers in the United States
| Author | Amy Mills,Emily Priesman,James Ruiz,Jennifer C Gibbs |
| DOI | 10.1177/1461355718817332 |
| Published date | 01 December 2018 |
| Date | 01 December 2018 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
Article
International Journal of
Police Science & Management
Police officers killed on duty: Comparing
2018, Vol. 20(4) 284–295
ª The Author(s) 2018
the influence of social investment on line
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of duty deaths of men and women
DOI: 10.1177/1461355718817332
journals.sagepub.com/home/psm
officers in the United States
Jennifer C Gibbs
(Capital College at Harrisburg, School of Public Affairs,) The Pennsylvania State University, USA
Emily Priesman
(Capital College at Harrisburg, School of Public Affairs,) The Pennsylvania State University, USA
James Ruiz
(Capital College at Harrisburg, School of Public Affairs,) The Pennsylvania State University, USA
Amy Mills
(Capital College at Harrisburg, School of Public Affairs,) The Pennsylvania State University, USA
Abstract
In a unique exploration of line of duty police deaths, Kachurik and colleagues found that police officers in the USA with
greater social investment (i.e., officers who were married and had children) were less likely than single officers to be
feloniously killed (compared with accidental death) in the line of duty (Kachurik S, Ruiz J and Staub M [2013] Police officers
killed on duty: a different view. International Journal of Police Science & Management 15: 114–124). This was confirmed by
Gibbs et al. (2014) studying deaths of Baltimore Police Department officers, finding marriage, but not the number of
children an officer had, was negatively associated with officer homicide (Gibbs JC, Ruiz J and Klapper-Lehman SA [2014]
Police officers killed on duty: replicating and extending a unique look at officer deaths. International Journal of Police Science
& Management 16: 277–287). Because marriage and children may have varying effects on each sex, this study explores the
relationship between social investment and police officer deaths in the line of duty, comparing men and women officers.
With a sample of 4840 men and 207 women police officers in the USA who died in the line of duty between 1980 and
2014, logistic regression confirmed the link between social investment and manner of death—although this relationship
presented differently for men and women officers. Specifically, children, but not marriage, significantly influenced the death
of women police officers; those who were married at the time of their death were less likely to be killed in the line of duty
(compared with accidental death) than unmarried officers, but the number of children had no effect on line of duty deaths
for women officers. Marriage had no effect on line of duty deaths for men, although having children increased the odds of a
felonious death—which is inconsistent with prior studies. Implications are discussed.
Keywords
Violence against police, line of duty deaths, women police, social investment
Submitted 16 May 2018, Revise received 13 Sep 2018, accepted 12 Nov 2018
Policing in the USA is a dangerous profession, with 66 state
Corresponding author:
Jennifer C Gibbs, Capital College at Harrisburg, School of Public Affairs,
and local police officers killed and another 12,421 officers
The Pennsylvania State University, Criminal Justice Program, 777 W. Har-
assaulted in 2016 alone (Federal Bureau of Investigation
risburg Pike, Middletown, PA 17057, USA.
[FBI], 2017). This is cause for concern, because deaths
Email: jengibbs@psu.edu
Gibbs et al.
285
among protective service occupations increased by 32%
gender in its processes, practices, images and ideologies,
from 2015 to 2016, with fatalities among police officers
and distributions of power” (Garcia, 2003: 335–336)—as
increasing by 24% (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016).
society has accepted and perpetuated the belief that women
Although other occupations like construction and transpor-
and men have different characteristics, but only men’s
tation/material moving account for more on-the-job deaths
characteristics make them suitable for police work (Garcia,
than police work, policing is one of the only professions in
2003; Rabe-Hemp, 2008; Shultz, 1995). The last Census of
which people regularly and intentionally actively engage in
State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies indicated that
physical confrontations during the course of their daily
the percentage of women employed by American policing
tasks (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016). Indeed, Meyer and
institutions has increased over the last decade, with larger
Carroll (2011: 27) observed, “it is precisely when officers
institutions more diverse than smaller ones (Langton,
are engaged in routine activities that they are most fre-
2010). Although women were involved in policing as early
quently murdered”.
as the 1900s, their primary duties were custodial in nature
Research on officer deaths in the line of duty points to
(Garcia, 2003). Around the 1970s, women were able to
these routine activities as obvious (Kaminski, 2004), fram-
“successfully” integrate into mainstream policing, with the
ing studies in opportunity theory. However, some factors
expectation that they simultaneously act in ways that are
may affect how officers engage in those routine activities.
both masculine and feminine, and with the understanding
In particular, recent evidence suggests that social invest-
that they were accountable for any sexual harassment by
ment—that is, marriage and children—play a role in police
other law enforcement officers or by citizens they encoun-
deaths (Gibbs et al., 2014; Kachurik et al., 2013). These
tered (Garcia, 2003; Shultz, 1995). Even today, researchers
studies, however, focused on all police officers, the major-
find that women police officers struggle to maintain mul-
ity of whom are men. Missing from this literature is an
tiple identities in their daily lives, trying to find the balance
examination specifically of women police officers.
between their role as a woman and their role as a police
Women and men typically are found to be socially
officer, in which feminine characteristics and values are
invested in different ways. For instance, women and men
often scrutinized by male counterparts (Rabe-Hemp, 2008).
occupy different—albeit in recent years somewhat conver-
Women police officers challenge male authority in
ging—roles in marriage and child-rearing, and these attri-
patriarchal societal structures, like that of policing in the
butes may have differential effects on women’s and men’s
USA. Indeed, about three-quarters of women officers
behavior. The purpose of this study is twofold: (1) to exam-
reported “the culture in police agencies is male-
ine whether the link between social investment and officer
dominated and not very woman-friendly” (Cordner and
death applies to women officers; and (2) to compare the
Cordner, 2011: 217). The lawsuits, legislation and other
influence of social investment factors between men and
programs designed to promote women’s involvement in
women officers.
policing may be viewed by adherents to the male-
This focus on women officers is especially important,
dominated policing culture as women receiving preferen-
because women comprise more than 20% of all police offi-
tial treatment, giving women officers an unfair advantage
cers in the USA (Hassell et al., 2010); the proportion hovers
(Lonsway, 2007). Some male officers cite reverse discrim-
around that percentage in other developed countries such as
ination, claiming that women are given assignments to “get
England and Wales, the Netherlands, Sweden, Slovenia and
them off the street” and promoted to achieve a gender
Estonia (see, e.g., Gibbs et al., 2015; Hargreaves et al.,
balance (Lonsway, 2007). Additionally, women officers
2016). Yet women still face challenges within policing.
are singled out to work with women offenders and com-
Women’s experiences in policing are explored in the next
plete the associated paperwork—even when it calls them
section, followed by a summary of what is known about
away from their own beats (Achbold and Schulz, 2008).
police officer deaths. A detailed description of the data set,
Further, research indicates that a false perception exists that
including the Officer Down Memorial Page from which the
women are unable to do the same job physically as their
outcome measure is drawn is explained in the Methods.
male colleagues (Cordner and Cordner, 2011). The notion
Following discussion of the results of logistic regression
that women are physically weaker than men is seen as
analyses, the article concludes that the relationship between
putting themselves and their partners in harm’s way (Lons-
social investment and officer death in the line of duty applies
way, 2007). Indeed, male officers rejecting their women
to women officers and differs from that of men officers.
counterparts, refusing to work with them and even display-
ing hostility all are possibilities women officers must face
(Gibbs, 2011). Another concern contributing to negative
Women’s experiences in policing
attitudes faced by women officers comes from the personal
Policing has always been defined as a gendered institu-
lives of their male coworkers: “Wives and girlfriends of
tion—“an institution that has notions and symbols of
male officers also may be a barrier to male acceptance of
286
International Journal of Police Science & Management 20(4)
female officers as they may be opposed to husbands and
women—from their male coworkers (Lonsway et al.,
boyfriends working long shifts partnered with another
2013; see also Collins, 2004; Somvadee and Morash,
woman” (Gibbs,...
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