Severe violent victimization and labour market exclusion: The significance of the victim–offender overlap
| Published date | 01 May 2023 |
| DOI | http://doi.org/10.1177/14773708221128517 |
| Author | Anna Kahlmeter |
| Date | 01 May 2023 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
Severe violent victimization
and labour market exclusion:
The significance of the
victim–offender overlap
Anna Kahlmeter
Swedish Institute for Social Research (SOFI), Stockholm University,
Sweden
Abstract
Evidence that violent victimization is associated with an array of negative outcomes over the life-course
is mounting. While its links to poor health have been extensively documented, socio-economic out-
comes have been left relatively unexplored. In this study, Swedish population register data are utilized
to examine the relationship between violent victimization and labour market exclusion, placing particu-
lar focus on the moderating role of offending and gender differences in this dynamic. Using data on 12
complete successive cohorts born 1975 to 1986, violent victimization is observed in young adulthood
(age 20–24) using patient register data, and is measured as interpersonal violence resulting in hospital
admission. Labour market exclusion is operationalized as being not in employment education or train-
ing and is observed at age 25 and 30. Linear probability models are estimated for men and women,
respectively. The findings suggest that women who have been victims of violent crime face elevated
risks of labour exclusion, in both the short and the long run, and regardless of criminal offending.
Men, on the other hand, display no excess risk of labour market exclusion in the absence of violent
offending. For the group of male violent offenders, however, victimization adds to the risk of labour
market exclusion. Implications of the findings are discussed.
Keywords
Violent victimization, victim–offender overlap, criminal offending, labour market exclusion, NEET,
youth-to-adulthood transition
Introduction
Violent victimization is increasingly highlighted as an urgent concern (WHO, 2013), and
in particular, domestic violence against women has been described as a serious violation
Corresponding author:
Anna Kahlmeter, Swedish Institute for Social Research (SOFI), Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm,
Sweden.
Email: anna.kahlmeter@sofi.su.se
Article
European Journal of Criminology
2023, Vol. 20(3) 1081–1105
© The Author(s) 2022
Article reuse guidelines:
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DOI: 10.1177/14773708221128517
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of human rights (European Commission, 2021). Evidence that violent victimization is
associated with an array of adverse outcomes over the life-course is mounting, especially
in terms of health outcomes (Janssen et al., 2021; Mahuteau and Zhu, 2016; Schaefer
et al., 2017; Turanovic and Pratt, 2015). While some previous research has demonstrated
that violent victimization is associated with elevated risks of low income, sick leave and
welfare receipt (Bindler and Ketel, 2019; Ornstein, 2017) and poor educational and occu-
pational attainment (Macmillan, 2000; Turanovic, 2019), labour market outcomes among
victims of violent crime have received relatively scant attention, particularly in the
context of young adulthood. This is important not least because young adults outside
the labour market display heightened risks of further labour market exclusion that
persist well into their thirties (Bäckman and Nilsson, 2016). Labour market exclusion
is key to a successful transition to adulthood and closely linked to other important
areas, such as poverty risks (Halleröd and Ekbrand, 2015) and bleak housing prospects
(Gousia et al., 2020). Heterogeneity in the impact of victimization is another largely over-
looked issue in victimology research, something researchers have recently begun to call
attention to (Lauritsen and Rezey, 2018). In particular, there is a lack of knowledge about
which groups of victims fare worse in terms of labour market exclusion.
The present study addresses this knowledge gap by revisiting the well-documented
victim–offender overlap, a phenomenon implying that victimization and offending are
intertwined, that is, victims often also being offenders and vice-versa (Jennings et al.,
2012), as well as addressing gender-specific dynamics, among Swedish young adults.
The victim–offender overlap has been found to be robust over time, cross-nationally
and in different age groups (Berg and Mulford, 2017; Lauritsen and Laub, 2007), but
it has scarcely been studied beyond efforts to explain its existence. The salience of the
victim–offender overlap and the gendered features of violence make these aspects par-
ticularly important to consider. This study aims to add knowledge about the relationship
between victimization and labour market exclusion among young adults. It asks (a) if
offending in general, and violent offending in particular, moderates the association and
(b) if these patterns are gendered or can be described as a general process. Two opposing
hypotheses are examined drawing on theories of cumulative (dis)advantage (Merton,
1973) and disadvantage saturation (Hannon, 2003). With reference to the former, victim-
ization and offending are theorized to reinforce each other in a cumulative fashion, and
offending is expected to compound the association between violent victimization and
labour market exclusion. The latter perspective, on the other hand, predicts that offending
mitigates the association between violent victimization and labour market exclusion
because of a saturation of adversity and a desensitization to violence whereupon the
experience of violent victimization is hypothesized to be less detrimental.
Young individuals are overrepresented in both crime and violent victimization.
International comparisons of violent crime statistics are inherently uncertain due to the
diversity in definitions, different approaches in crime surveying and in registration of
offences. In attempts that have been made, Sweden, the context of this study, ranks
low in terms of self-reported violence as compared to, for example, the US and the
UK (Van Wilsem, 2004). Between 2006 and 2019 the average yearly rate of 20- to
24-year-olds reporting exposure to assault was 8.4%. This can be compared to 3.5%
among 25- to 44-year-olds. The age pattern is the same for exposure to sexual violence,
1082 European Journal of Criminology 20(3)
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