Social ostracism as a determinant of criminal recidivism in metropolitan Kano-Nigeria: a partial least square analysis
| Published date | 21 September 2015 |
| Date | 21 September 2015 |
| Pages | 175-190 |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.1108/JCRPP-04-2015-0010 |
| Author | Aminu Musa Ahmed,Abd Halim B. Ahmad |
| Subject Matter | Health & social care,Criminology & forensic psychology |
Social ostracism as a determinant
of criminal recidivism in metropolitan
Kano-Nigeria: a partial least square
analysis
Aminu Musa Ahmed and Abd Halim B. Ahmad
Aminu Musa Ahmed is Phd
Candidate at the School of
Government, Universiti Utara
Malaysia, Sintok, Malaysia and
Lecturer at the Sociology
Department, Bayero University,
Kano, Nigeria.
Abd Halim B. Ahmad is
Associate Professor at the
School of Government,
Universiti Utara Malaysia,
Sintok, Malaysia.
Abstract
Purpose –The purpose of this paper is to examining and analyzing the predictors of criminal recidivism
among the ex-prisoners in metropolitan Kano-Nigeria using social ostracism as a predictor. However, the
study utilizes two main dimensions of social ostracism; being ignored and being excluded in analyzing
criminal recidivism.
Design/methodology/approach –This study is quantitative in nature. Data were collected using survey
method. Purposive sampling method was used and the population of the study were the ex-prisoners who
are released after their prison terms. A total of 256 sample size was utilized and data were analyzed using
Partial Lease Squares –Structural Equation Modeling.
Findings –The findings revealed that, there is significant positive relationship between ignoring and
exclusion of ex-prisoners in relation to criminal recidivism (o0.001***). The model used in the study shows
that being ignored is having small effects, whereas being excluded is having medium effects (f
2
0.121,
0.203), with predictive relevance (Q
2
0.1884).
Practical implications –Going by the study findings it was concluded that social ostracism of ex-prisoners
in metropolitan Kano is having positive effects toward criminal recidivism. It is recommended that policy
should be made to reduce the exclusion of ex-prisoners so as to reduce their chances of becoming criminal
recidivists.
Originality/value –Though many predictors were used in analyzing recidivism, this study used social ostracism
which is not previously used as a sole predictor of criminal recidivism.
Keywords Crime, Being excluded, Being ignored, Criminal recidivism, Ex-prisoner, Social exclusion,
Social ostracism
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Criminal activities are always on the increase (Ahmed and Ahmad, 2015a) despite the measures
put in place by the relevant authorities to prevent it. One of the issues in the increasing aspect of
crime is criminal recidivism. According to Petersilia (2003) the greatest consequences of the
increasing numbers of the prison inmates is the burden of such prisoners on both the State as
well as the general community. For instance, Bureau of Justice Statistics in the USA indicated
that between the year 1980 and 2007, the total amount of offenders placed on parole
grown much higher to the extent that it exceeds 250 percent (Glaze and Bonczar, 2008;
Beck et al., 1996) the amount covered in the year 2007, revealed that about 800,000 inmates
were placed on parole (Glaze and Bonczar, 2008). Notwithstanding of the increase, it also
Received 28 April 2015
Revised 4 June 2015
12 July 2015
Accepted 12 July 2015
DOI 10.1108/JCRPP-04-2015-0010 VOL. 1 NO. 3 2015, pp.175-190, © Emerald Group Publishing Limited, ISSN 2056-3841
j
JOURNAL OF CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH,POLICY AND PRACTICE
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PAGE175
buttressed that 60 percent of such inmates are further reconvicted for another new criminal behaviors
within two years of their release from custody (Solomon et al., 2005). The contributing indicators of
criminal recidivism among the inmates released from correctional centers have been discussed from
different point of view (Andrews and Bonta, 1994; Blackburn, 1993). Many studies indicated that
some factors and predictors are positively and significantly related to criminal recidivism. For instance,
a research conducted by Hare (1991), revealed that indicators like arrest age (for the first time),
criminal versatility, substance use like drugs or alcohol, and lack of education are often associated
with criminal recidivism. However, other study stressed the relationship between anti social behaviors
such as psychopath as an important predicting factor of recidivism among ex-prisoners. More often
than not, Gondles (2003) maintained that, factors that are contributing to criminal recidivism is when
an offenders reach probation, other institutions of social control, offending behavior, family’s
neighborhoods and schools. The purpose of this study is to analyze the dimensions of social
ostracism (being ignored and being excluded) and see whether or not they can have effect on the
ex-prisoners as predictors of criminal recidivism in metropolitan Kano-Nigeria.
Social ostracism
Social exclusion as a phenomena does not only stop at labeling and stigmatizing an individual
but rather create a scenario of social discrimination and the combination of such would invariably
leads to the social ostracism of an individual (Bastian et al., 2012). Social ostracism can be
conceptualized as a situation where by people or to be specific individual would be relatively and
completely ignored from the company of others in a particular group. A research conducted by
Twenge et al. (2001) revealed that being ostracized stressed the point of rejection of an individual
member in the sense that his/her participation toward the group life and activities is not welcome.
That is, the group members do not have a good wish to associate or work with others base on
certain circumstances or an individual possession of an attribute. Thus, nobody in the group
wants to be acquainted (Bastian et al., 2012) with the ostracized member or getting closer (Maner
et al., 2007) there by making the individual to be excluded.
The above argument though, is important but stressed more on participation as well as group
activities. However, other researchers conducted on social ostracism looked at it from the
psychological point of view (Legate et al., 2013). According to Batson (2009) people in a particular
society usually tend to care about themselves by interacting with one another and making each
person to be a stake player even when an individual is considered to be a new comer (stranger)
(Weinstein and Ryan, 2010) and this help others to associate and become part and parcel of the
community. However, some situations may warrant that some people may not be included and
thus, they may be hurt and isolated by others which would invariably have a psychological effect
on them in the sense that they are intentionally ignored by others (Williams, 2007). Moreover,
among the various means of ostracism, it is generally believed that, the psychological feelings as
a result of being ostracized is considered to be more stretching on individual person and that
could lead to any form of defiance in terms of law abiding.
A recent study conducted on the psychological cost of complying with ostracism (Legate et al.,
2013) revealed that ostracism is not only physical rejection of individual from a particular society.
It goes beyond mare physical rejection but also covered a physical pain, self-rejection feelings as
well as feeling of guilty among other people.It also creates a general sense of nothaving personal
belonging, self-respect as well as having a meaningful life (Bandura, 1997; Solomon etal., 1991).
In their researchand analysis of social ostracismBastian et al. (2012) are of the viewthat, individuals
are usually ostracized in order to be punishedfor one behavior or the other. That is, people canbe
hurt through the process of being ostracized by others simply because they are considered to be
less important (Bastian and Haslam, 2010) by virtue of their attributes or social circumstances
surroundingthe application of the ostracism.Thus, some are dehumanized with the acceptanceof
others in order to institute a harsh punishment on others especially when they are being rejected
and excluded in the process of their social engagements and social interactions with other
members of their societies. They are usually considered less important for meaningful reformation.
Therefore, based on the above analysis one can argue that social ostracism is used intentionally
to punish some category of people in a particular society base on what is considered as negative
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