Social responses to collective crime: Assessing the relationship between crime-related fears and collective sentiments
| Author | Atte Oksanen,Pekka Rasanen,James Hawdon,Miika Vuori |
| DOI | 10.1177/1477370813485516 |
| Published date | 01 January 2014 |
| Date | 01 January 2014 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
European Journal of Criminology
2014, Vol 11(1) 39 –56
© The Author(s) 2013
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DOI: 10.1177/1477370813485516
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Social responses to collective
crime: Assessing the
relationship between crime-
related fears and collective
sentiments
James Hawdon
Centre for Peace Studies and Violence Prevention, Virginia Tech University, USA
Pekka Rasanen
Department of Social Research, University of Turku, Finland
Atte Oksanen
Finnish Youth Research Society, University of Turku, Finland
Miika Vuori
Department of Social Research, University of Turku, Finland
Abstract
The literature on the effects of fear of crime has investigated a number of the nuances of this
phenomenon; however, how the fear of different types of crime influences communities has yet to
be investigated. We hypothesize that the fear–decline model, which argues fear leads to a decrease
in solidarity, applies to ‘routine’ street crimes; however, fearing crimes that attack the collective,
such as school shootings, will increase community solidarity. Using two datasets collected in
Finnish communities after they experienced tragic school shootings, our results indicate that the
fear–decline model receives strong support but the fear–solidarity model does not.
Keywords
Solidarity, fear of crime, collective crime, school shootings, Finland
Corresponding author:
James Hawdon, Centre for Peace Studies and Violence Prevention, Virginia Tech University, Blacksburg, VA
24061, USA.
Email: hawdonj@vt.edu
485516EUC11110.1177/1477370813485516European Journal of CriminologyHawdon et al.
2013
Article
40 European Journal of Criminology 11(1)
Crime can fracture a community’s social network, lead residents to withdraw from civic
life, reduce levels of social capital and collective efficacy, and foster an environment that
promotes more crime (Markowitz et al., 2001). Yet, crime can also galvanize a commu-
nity, bringing its members together in an outpouring of social solidarity (Garland, 1990;
Hawdon et al., 2010). It appears that different types of crimes produce different social
reactions. Our research addresses a related question; however, we focus on the fear of
crime instead of the occurrence of crime. Specifically, we ask, ‘Do different types of fear
of crime produce different consequences for a community?’
Using data from two Finnish communities, we analyse if fear of collective crimes
such as terrorist acts or school shootings produces different social responses than fear of
‘routine’ street crimes such as homicide, assault or rape. We use data collected after
tragic school shootings in Jokela (2007) and Kauhajoki (2008) Finland. Both offenders
targeted their own communities and claimed to have societal motives for their actions. In
total, 20 people died in the shootings, which are the worst cases of mass shootings in
Finnish history. The Jokela data were collected in the spring of 2008, six months after the
tragedy but prior to the Kauhajoki shooting. The Kauhajoki data were collected in the
spring of 2009, six months after the shooting occurred there. These data are well suited
for our research because they enable the exploration of fear of crime and social response
in communities that experienced mass tragedies.
Our research contributes to the study of crime in several ways. First, as noted by Gray
and her associates (2011), there is a need to analyse the emotional responses to collective
crimes, and Muschert (2007) argues for research analysing school shootings in different
cultural contexts. Our research addresses both of these issues. Second, most fear of crime
research focuses on fear as a dependent variable, and the studies using fear of crime as
an independent variable analyse how it affects individuals’ wellbeing or behaviours (e.g.
Cobbina et al., 2008; Jackson and Gray, 2010; Jackson and Stafford, 2009; Stafford et al.,
2007). Our research focuses on the consequences of fear on community wellbeing.
Finally, our research on two Finnish communities provides an important cross-national
case study.
Literature review
As the research on fear of crime has expanded, scholars have explored the nuances of
the topic. Researchers have noted those who fear crime are not those who have expe-
rienced it (e.g. Skogan and Maxfield, 1981), and the relationships between victimiza-
tion and fear depends on both the type of victimization and the timing of victimization.
Similarly, while a gender difference is found in the fear of violent victimization, men
and women appear to fear economic victimization equally (Roundtree, 1998; also see
Callanan and Teasdale, 2009). Scholars also distinguish between diffuse anxieties
about crime and everyday worries about crime (Farrall et al., 2009; Gray et al., 2011).
While fear can lead to dysfunctional worries that reduce quality of life, it can also lead
individuals to adopt activities that protect them from crime and buffer them from the
generally negative effects of crime fears (Gray et al., 2011; Jackson and Gray, 2010).
Moreover, fear can also stimulate community action (Hawdon and Ryan, 2009). Thus,
a broad range of existing literature identifies different causes and consequences of
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