Stress, Gender and Policing: The Impact of Perceived Gender Discrimination on Symptoms of Stress
| Author | Kenneth Dowler,Bruce Arai |
| DOI | 10.1350/ijps.2008.10.2.81 |
| Published date | 01 June 2008 |
| Date | 01 June 2008 |
| Subject Matter | Article |
Stress, gender and policing: the impact of
perceived gender discrimination on
symptoms of stress
Kenneth Dowler† and Bruce Arai‡
†(Corresponding author) Department of Criminology and Contemporary Studies, Wilfrid
Laurier University-Brantford, 73 George St, Brantford, Ontario, Canada, N3T 2Y3.
Email: kdowler@wlu.ca
‡Department of Contemporary Studies, Wilfrid Laurier University-Brantford, 73 George St,
Brantford, Ontario, Canada, N3T 2Y3. Email: barai@wlu.ca
Received 14 February 2006; revised 20 July 2006; finalised 23 February
2008
Keywords: police, stress, discrimination, emotions, gender, jokes
Kenneth Dowler is an associate professor at
perception of gender discrimination and in levels
Wilfrid Laurier University, Brantford Campus. His
of stress. The results indicate that male and
research interests revolve around media repre-
female officers have conflicting attitudes about the
sentations of race and gender within criminal
amount and nature of gender discrimination
justice. He is also interested in the evolving
within police work. The findings further suggest
nature of the police subculture and its impact on
that female officers experience higher levels of
policing. His work has appeared in the Journal of
stress. In addition, the results indicate a weak
Crime & Justice, Canadian Journal of Criminol-
relationship between perceptions of gender-related
ogy and Criminal Justice, Journal of Criminal
jokes and stress levels for females. Interestingly,
Justice and Popular Culture, Policing & Society,
male officers who report that females are held to a
American Journal of Criminal Justice and Police
higher standard experience lower levels of stress.
Quarterly.
Nevertheless, the most important stressor for both
Bruce Arai is the acting Dean at Wilfrid Laurier
males and females is the perception of job-related
University, Brantford Campus. His research inter-
problems.
ests include the sociology of work, the sociology
of education and environmental sociology. His
recent work has appeared in the Canadian
INTRODUCTION
Journal of Sociology, Canadian Review of
The proportion of female police officers has
Sociology and Anthropology and the Journal of
Change Management.
grown steadily over the past 30 years.
Despite these advances, women are still
vastly underrepresented in police work.
ABSTRACT
Female officers account for 12.7 per cent of
Police work is inherently stressful. However, the
all sworn law enforcement positions in large
traditionally male-dominated field of policing
agencies (over 100), and 8.1 per cent in
may create increased obstacles and stressors for
small or rural agencies (National Center for
International Journal of Police
Science and Management,
female officers. Therefore, the purpose of this
Women and Policing, 2002). Gaining
Vol. 10 No. 2, 2008, pp. 123–135.
DOI: 10.1350/ijps.2008.10.2.81
study is to examine gender differences in the
acceptance in a traditionally male-
Page 123
Stress, gender and policing
dominated field has been onerous. The dif-
1974; Violanti, 1981; Violanti & Aron).
ficulty experienced by female officers
However, the type of stressor may affect the
manifests itself in the evaluation of new
outcome of stress. For example, inherent
recruits, in management attitudes and con-
stressors may increase health troubles and
duct, in attitudes and behaviour of male co-
weaken coping strategies, while organisa-
workers, in citizen attitudes and in
tional stressors may create alienation.
promotions or career progression (Stuart-
Additionally, in the Job-Strain Model of
Van Wormer & Bartollas, 2000). These
the relationship between job stress and ill-
problems are further exacerbated by high
ness, objective job factors (eg hours
levels of sexual harassment and gender bias
worked, exposure to dangerous situations)
(Bartol, Bergen, Seager-Volkens, & Knoras,
are generally more important than sub-
1992; Harrington & Lonsway, 2004;
jective factors (eg perceived demands, bore-
Horne, 1999; Morris, 1996; Nichols,
dom) in predicting overall health outcomes.
1995). Consequently, the inherent gender
However, subjective factors are better pre-
bias that encompasses police work may
dictors of psychological distress (Gareis &
increase the level of stress among female
Burnett, 2002).
officers. Therefore, the purpose of this study
A review of police stress research reveals
is twofold: to examine gender differences in
that the costs of stress include: cynicism and
stress levels, and to determine the impact
suspiciousness, emotional detachment from
that perceived gender discrimination has on
family, reduced efficiency, absenteeism and
the stress level of police officers.
early retirement, excessive aggressiveness,
Police work is highly stressful (Peak,
alcoholism, marital or family problems
2003; Toch, 2002). Police officers are
(extramarital affairs, divorce or domestic
exposed to both ‘inherent’ and ‘organisa-
violence), post-traumatic stress disorder,
tional’ stressors. Inherent stressors are events
health problems (heart attacks, ulcers,
that happen routinely in police work and
weight gain) and suicide (Toch, 2002,
which have the potential to be psycho-
p. 6).
logically and physically harmful to officers.
In terms of gender, the results are mixed.
Inherent stressors include boredom and
Some research suggests that female officers
inactivity, use of force, use of discretion,
experience higher levels of stress (Bartol et
making critical decisions, continual expos-
al., 1992; C.A. Martin, 1983; Pendergrass &
ure to citizens in pain or distress and
Ostrove, 1984; Wertsch, 1998; Wexler &
exposure to danger, violence and possible
Logan, 1983). Conversely, other research
death. Conversely, organisational stressors
indicates that there are few gender differ-
refer to policies and practices of the police
ences in stress outcomes (Dantzker, 1998;
department, which may include poor
Pole et al., 2001; Haarr & Morash, 1999;
wages, excessive paperwork, bureaucracy,
Morash & Haarr, 1995; Patterson, 2003;
insufficient training, inadequate equipment,
Singer & Love, 1988). Interestingly, Nor-
shift work, weekend duty, limited promo-
velle, Hills, and Murrin (1993) find that
tional opportunities, lack of administrative
male officers experience greater stress,
support, and poor relationships with super-
emotional exhaustion and dissatisfaction
visors or colleagues (Violanti & Aron,
than female officers. However, studies con-
1993). Numerous researchers suggest that
clude that danger, threat of violence, and
organisational stressors are more powerful
exposure to tragedy increase stress for
than inherent stressors (Graf, 1986; Grier,
female officers (Bartol et al.; Brown &
1982; Martelli, Walters, & Martelli, 1989;
Fielding, 1993). Moreover, Geick (1998)
Norvelle, Belles, & Hills, 1988; Reiser,
finds that female officers report less stress
Page 124
Dowler and Bruce
but report increased symptoms of post-
Remmington, 1983; Segrave, 1995; Tim-
traumatic stress disorder.
mins & Hainsworth, 1989; Wexler &
Furthermore, the relationship between
Logan, 1983). Some male officers have
workplace stress and family life is inherently
grave reservations about women as compe-
complex. As Gareis and Burnett (2002)
tent police officers (Lord, 1986), which is
show, there is a need to account for the
often based in stereotypes about femininity.
quality of family relationships in assessing
Consequently, harassment is often related to
the link between work and stress. In par-
male officers’ opposition to women col-
ticular, they show that positive parent–child
leagues (Brown, 1998). Therefore, it is not
relationships mitigate the effects of work-
surprising that the most significant problem
place stressors on psychological distress
reported by female officers is the negative
among women. However, they also point
attitudes and behaviours of male colleagues
out that the causal direction of these rela-
(Harrington & Lonsway, 2004).
tionships is unclear. It may be that having
One particularly virulent type of gender
positive parent–child relationships reduces
the influence of workplace stressors on
bias is sexual harassment. Various forms of
psychological distress, or that high levels of
sexual harassment are widespread in poli-
distress prevent the formation of positive
cing (Bartol et al., 1992; Horne, 1999;
parent–child relationships. These relation-
Morris, 1996; Nichols, 1995). Horne
ships also need to be investigated among
(1999) found that the majority of female
men.
officers encountered both harassment and
Finally, Haarr and Morash (1999) find
sex discrimination in police employment. A
that females have slightly higher levels of
Florida study reveals that 61 per cent of
stress. However, this only reflects racial dif-
female respondents experienced sexual
ferences; white females have no difference
harassment, while 40 per cent reported that
in stress levels, while African American
sexually oriented jokes and material are
female officers experience higher stress.
daily phenomena (Harrington & Lonsway,
2004). Yet another study indicates that 68
per cent of female police officers had been
GENDER HARASSMENT
sexually...
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