Sugar and spice … and a badge and a gun
| Date | 01 September 2015 |
| Author | Jennifer C Gibbs,Sarah Anne Klapper-Lehman,James Ruiz |
| Published date | 01 September 2015 |
| DOI | 10.1177/1461355715596308 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
Article
International Journal of
Police Science & Management
Sugar and spice . . . and a badge and a gun:
2015, Vol. 17(3) 155–163
ª The Author(s) 2015
A cross-national descriptive comparison
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of women’s involvement in policing
DOI: 10.1177/1461355715596308
psm.sagepub.com
Jennifer C Gibbs
School of Public Affairs, Capital College at Harrisburg, The Pennsylvania State University, Middletown, PA, USA
James Ruiz
School of Public Affairs, Capital College at Harrisburg, The Pennsylvania State University, Middletown, PA, USA
Sarah Anne Klapper-Lehman
School of Public Affairs, Capital College at Harrisburg, The Pennsylvania State University, Middletown, PA, USA
Abstract
Women’s involvement in policing has been an area of study in the United States, but research in other countries has been
sporadic. Comparative research, in particular, is scant in the literature on women’s involvement in policing. To address
this gap in knowledge, this study explores differences between countries with high and low proportions of officers who
are female. Qualitatively comparing these countries, several distinctions emerged between countries with a small
percentage (percentage (> 18%) of female police (Estonia, Slovenia, Sweden, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom). Four of
the five low percentage countries are located in Asia, with a higher population density, homicide rate and economic
inequality (as measured by the Gini Index) than most of the countries with a high percentage of female officers. These
low percentage countries also have yet to abolish capital punishment, whereas all high percentage countries have done
so. In addition, two of the low percentage countries, but none of the high percentage countries, were involved in a
civil war during the data collection period; two of the high percentage countries, but no low percentage countries,
were involved in interstate war. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Keywords
Women, female, police, cross-national research
Submitted 02 Mar 2015, accepted 21 Jun 2015
Introduction
overnight – spread across the country, private organizations
often paid their salaries because the city governments were
The entry of women into policing appears to have come
not always convinced that they were necessary (Bouza,
about due to a shortage of men to staff open positions –
1976; Rabe-Hemp, 2007).
at least in the United States. Bouza (1975) observed that the
first women, with the title of matron, were hired by the New
York Police Department (NYPD) in 1888 to assist with the
Great Blizzard. While police matrons – who were tasked
with supervising women in prisons, conducting body
Corresponding author:
Jennifer C. Gibbs, Capital College at Harrisburg, School of Public
searches of female prisoners, ensuring that male officers
Affairs, Criminal Justice Program, The Pennsylvania State University, 777
did not harass female inmates, teaching prisoners domestic
W. Harrisburg Pike, Middletown, PA 17057, USA.
arts, and watching women and children who were to be held
Email: jengibbs@psu.edu
156
International Journal of Police Science & Management 17(3)
It was not until Martin’s (1980) participant observa-
federations in England, Wales and Scotland were against
tional study of women in policing that any systematic
allowing women into their ranks from the outset. Consider-
research was conducted. Subsequent research on women
able resistance to women in policing continued (Owings,
in policing has addressed their effectiveness, attainment
1925). Male officers believed that women in policing
of rank, foray into specialized areas, impact of stress, poli-
would militate against them. This resistance became offi-
cing styles, management of intense situations and those
cial in 1922 with the government-sponsored Geddes
areas in which they surpass their male counterparts. This
Report, which called for the total abolition of women police
research, however, primarily focuses on the United States.
officers. This report justified this action as a cost-saving
Outside the United States, the progress of women into poli-
measure because it was believed that male police officers
cing came on the heels of reconstruction, such as that which
could manage all areas of police work (Horne, 1975). The
occurred during the reconstruction periods of World Wars I
number of women police officers was cut to 20, as their
and II, as well as times of nation building such as the post-
yearly contracts were not renewed. Women’s groups in
colonial period in Africa, Asia, the Middle East and those
England, led by Lady Astor, joined forces with the Interna-
of developing democracies Eastern Europe and South
tional Association of Policewomen based in the United
America (Brown et al., 2014). However, knowledge about
States to rescue women’s involvement in policing (Higgins,
women’s involvement in policing in countries other than
1966). As a result of the assistance of the association’s
the United States – and especially comparative work on the
president, Lt. Mina Van Winkle, the UK Home Secretary
topic – is sparse.
established the position of ‘woman constable’. In 1924, the
The purpose of this research is to contribute to filling
50 women constables on the London Metropolitan Police
this gap in the literature. First, what is known about the his-
were granted full powers of arrest (Horne, 1975).
tory of women’s involvement in policing worldwide is
Germany was another early pioneer incorporating
reviewed. Next, the countries with the lowest and highest
women into police work. The first appointment of a woman
proportions of women police officers are compared on sev-
police officer in Germany occurred in Stuttgart in 1903
eral dimensions. Several common factors emerged from
(Heidensohn, 2000). During this groundbreaking stage,
this qualitative comparison; these findings and their impli-
Heidensohn noted parallels and disparities among countries
cations are discussed.
regarding the duties of these initial women entries into poli-
cing. Qualities common among these women encompass an
emphasis on ‘ . . . social and welfare work, use of well-
Women in policing worldwide: a history
educated recruits from upper- or middleclass backgrounds,
The first ‘female patrol officer’ in the United States was
and an impetus provided by an external movement lobby-
hired in 1975 (Bouza, 1975). A job that was considered
ing for the presence of women in policing’ (Brown et al.,
to be too dangerous for women, policewomen on the street
2014: 5549). In Australia, women ‘ . . . were used to fill a
had the ability to act as elderly women and prostitutes, were
gap between law enforcement and welfare to mitigate dif-
considered to be better communicators, were seen as less
ficulties experienced by policemen in managing female
threatening to men and displayed more sensitivity (Darien,
offenders and female victims of crime’ (Prenzler, 1994:
2013). Women who entered policing during these early
88). Women in policing in New Zealand, Sweden and the
stages were not openly embraced by all. Brown and Hei-
United States were not uniformed, and they were tasked
densohn (2000) noted that a common perception was that
as matrons, nursing sisters or social workers. However, as
women were incapable of managing the violence and harsh
alluded to earlier, such was not the case for women officers
working environment of policing. Female officers often
in Great Britain (Heidensohn, 2000).
were seen as less competent than men and deemed unfit
In other countries, women were not involved in policing
to be officers; this was best observed in the lack of uniforms
until much later. Legislation like Taiwan’s Gender Equality
for women officers even up to the 1980s (Duffin, 2010). In
Law, which was passed in 2001, opened up more opportu-
the United States, at least, this perception is slowly chang-
nity for female officers in normal policing assignments
ing (Archbold & Schulz, 2012).
(Chu, 2013). In Turkey, for example, the first active recruit-
By contrast, Great Britain was the pioneer regarding the
ment of women to the Turkish National Police occurred in
entry of women into policing. In 1918, the Metropolitan
1979. That year, two women were accepted as constables.
Police of London recognized the valuable work performed
It was not until 2003 that the first women students were
by women police patrol officers by inaugurating The Divi-
accepted into the police college. Even though women make
sion of Women Police Patrols composed entirely of
up one quarter of the Turkish workforce, the number of
women. This division consisted of one superintendent, an
women on the police force and in the police college has
assistant superintendent, 10 sergeants and 100 women
remained relatively low. In 2005, there were only 20 female
police officers (Horne, 1975). However, the all-male police
students enrolled in the police college and none had applied
Gibbs et al.
157
that year compared with 714 men. On the force itself, there
Table 1. Ranking of percentage of women involved in policing by
were 9463 women compared with 164,158 men (Balci,
country.
2011; Gu¨ltekin et al., 2010).
Rank
Country
% women police
1.
Albania
0.52
Gendered policing
2.
Bangladesh
1
Policing practices in developing countries, usually charac-
3.
India
1.78
terized as ‘closed societies’ never come about with the
4.
Indonesia
3.36
5.
Japan
4.19
same ease as in open Western industrialized nations....
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