The Ideology of Far Left Populism in Greece: Blame, Victimhood and Revenge in the Discourse of Greek Anarchists
| Author | Roman Gerodimos |
| DOI | 10.1111/1467-9248.12079 |
| Published date | 01 August 2015 |
| Date | 01 August 2015 |
| Subject Matter | Article |
The Ideology of Far Left Populism in Greece:
Blame,Victimhood and Revenge in the Discourse
of Greek Anarchists
Roman Gerodimos
Bournemouth University
Populism has often been conceptualised as a ‘necessary evil’, a phenomenon that is at odds with core elements of
representative democracy while also fulfilling a functional role.While the literature on populism has seen a healthy
growth, new questions have emerged about the role of emotions in populist rhetoric and that rhetoric’s role in the
path to political violence. Furthermore, the literature on populism in Europe has predominantly focused on the
discourse or electoral success of far right political parties using quantitative analyses.This ar ticle presents a qualitative
analysis of far left populism in Greece, focusing on the discourse of anarchists during the riots of December 2008.
Through an in-depth examination of 38 communiqués,leaflets and posters produced by groups taking part in the riots,
the ideological basis of far left extremism is dissected, illustrating the links and logical pathways between blame,
victimhood and violent revenge. It is argued that the emerging narrative constitutes a coherent populist ideology
aiming to appropriate power, but also a distinct populist identity based on victimhood and anger, both of which
challenge the notion that populism is compatible with democracy.
Keywords: populism; far left; Greece; democracy; extremism
The discussion on populism has created an increasingly rich body of literature with a range
of theoretical models and applications. Defining populism has been a notoriously difficult
enterprise, although considerable progress has been achieved in mapping both its key traits
and the different scholarly approaches to it (Fieschi, 2004). Before even articulating a
definition, one has to consider whether populism constitutes a discourse or an ideology.A
discourse constitutes a set of rhetorical practices or repertoires of action that can extend
beyond the literal or symbolic domain. Ernesto Laclau (2005) conceptualises populism as a
discourse articulating unfulfilled demands. In contrast,an ideology would require a core set
of philosophical or moral principles that remain constant across time and space, hence
producing a convincing narrative that interprets reality and is used to seek power. Koen
Abts and Stefan Rummens (2007) view populism as a proto-totalitarian, albeit thin-
centred, ideology, while Hans-Georg Betz and Carol Johnson (2004) focus on populism’s
emphasis on selective exclusion.
The adaptability and ubiquitous appearance of populism across countries, historical
periods and political cleavages have led some scholars to question the existence of a
coherent populist ideology and to argue that populism is essentially an empty vessel – a
chameleonic phenomenon with an ‘empty heart’ (Fieschi, 2004; Taggart, 2004), although
Luke March (2007) notes that‘defining populism as an ideology should certainly not imply
intellectual robustness or consistency’.Therefore, for the purposes of this article I will be
adopting and applying Cas Mudde’s definition of populism as ‘an ideology that considers
society to be ultimately separated into two homogeneous and antagonistic groups,the “pure
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doi: 10.1111/1467-9248.12079
POLITICAL STUDIES: 2015 VOL 63, 608–625
© 2013The Author.Political Studies © 2013 Political Studies Association
people” vs.“the corrupt elite”, and which argues that politics should be an expression of the
volonté générale of the people’ (Mudde, 2004, p. 562).As Cas Mudde and Cristóbal Rovira
Kaltwasser (2011) point out, this definition is minimal enough to allow for application
across regions and political cultures, while also acknowledging that populism, as a ‘thin-
centred’ ideology, can work in conjunction with other political ideologies.
Despite the advances in the study of populism, certain questions still remain and yet
others have emerged – such as the role of emotions in populist rhetoric,and that rhetor ic’s
role in the path to violence. Sarah De Lange and Cas Mudde (2005) conducted an
exhaustive review of the literature on populism and extremism in Europe.They found that
almost all studies focus exclusively on the right or far right and on the same few countries
of Western Europe; their methodological approach is predominantly quantitative and based
on secondary sources; the great majority focus on political parties and the study of populism
is often associated with the interpretation of extremist parties’ electoral success; and finally,
they usually involve case studies of a single organisation within each country.
Taking a different approach, this article will apply the theory of populism to the far left
in Greece using the discourse of anarchists during the December 2008 riots as a case study.
Since late 2009 Greece has found itself amid the worst economic, political and social crisis
in memory. The continuing negotiations,loan agreements and austerity packages have been
followed by social turmoil,fragmentation of the political system and the r ise of extremism,
demonstrated in particular – but not exclusively – by the sudden rise of the unashamedly
neo-Nazi Golden Dawn Party, which in both May and June 2012 elections received almost
7 per cent of the vote (Gerodimos, 2013). While taking place one year before the debt crisis
even broke out, the December 2008 riots, which followed the random and unprovoked
killing of a fifteen-year-old student by two special police guards in central Athens, are seen
by many as an early sign of the current crisis of civic culture in Greece.
Thus, the aims of this article are: (1) to establish empirically the salient features of
populism in the discourse of far left extremists in Greece during the December 2008 riots;
and, through that (2) to offer a conceptually robust and replicable model for the under-
standing of far left populism. This is achieved by dissecting the primary material so as to
understand the logical construct and components of populist ideology upon which the
anarchists’ actions were founded and,subsequently, by producing a critique of the literature
on populism in light of the evidence presented here.
The Features of Populism and an Emerging Research Agenda
While different scholars have highlighted or emphasised different elements of populism,the
appeal to the people – or to a ‘heartland’(Taggart, 2004) – and the treatment of that people
as a homogeneous community is one universally accepted feature. An antagonistic rela-
tionship between the innocent, pure or dominated people and the corr upt or dominant
elite is the other major constitutive element of populist ideology (e.g. Canovan, 1999;
Laclau, 2005; Mudde, 2004).
Beyond this core, a number of strategic and rhetor ical features have been proposed:
populist political parties usually depend on a charismatic leader; populist discourse offers
simple solutions to complex problems,using plain language, denouncing intellectual nuance
and evoking emotion in a manipulative way in order to mobilise supporters; a narrative of
IDEOLOGY OF FAR LEFT POPULISM IN GREECE 609
© 2013The Author.Political Studies © 2013 Political Studies Association
POLITICAL STUDIES: 2015, 63(3)
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