Understanding violent extremism: Risk and protective factors in a jihadi male detainee population in the Netherlands
| Published date | 01 May 2023 |
| DOI | http://doi.org/10.1177/14773708221132887 |
| Author | Gaby Thijssen,Erik Masthoff,Jelle J. Sijtsema,Stefan Bogaerts |
| Date | 01 May 2023 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
Understanding violent
extremism: Risk and protective
factors in a jihadi male detainee
population in the Netherlands
Gaby Thijssen
Penitentiary Institution Vught, the Netherlands
Tilburg University, the Netherlands
Erik Masthoff
Fivoor Academy of Research, Innovation and Development (FARID), the
Netherlands
Tilburg University, the Netherlands
Jelle J. Sijtsema
Fivoor Academy of Research, Innovation and Development (FARID), the
Netherlands
Tilburg University, the Netherlands
Stefan Bogaerts
Fivoor Academy of Research, Innovation and Development (FARID), the
Netherlands
Tilburg University, the Netherlands
Abstract
In recent years, the number of detainees confined for terrorism-related offenses has increased
worldwide and across Europe. To understand the factors related to terrorism and its underlying
motives, this study provides insights into violent extremism by assessing risk- and protective fac-
tors based on the Violent Extremism Risk Assessment-2R (VERA-2R) in 121 male jihadist resi-
dents in Dutch terrorism wings. Retrospective analyses of primary source data showed that
one-third of the target group is strongly connected to ideologies justifying violence. The social
Corresponding author:
Gaby Thijssen, PI Vught, Lunettenlaan 501, 5263 NT Vught, the Netherlands.
Email: g.p.j.thijssen@tilburguniversity.edu
Article
European Journal of Criminology
2023, Vol. 20(3) 973–995
© The Author(s) 2022
Article reuse guidelines:
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DOI: 10.1177/14773708221132887
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context of the study sample was also related to violent extremism, whereas support from family
members emerged as the most often observed protective factor. The current findingssuggest that
including meaningful risk and protective factors of detained male jihadists may benefit risk manage-
ment strategies in prevention, intervention, and policy practices related to violent extremism.
Keywords
Violent extremism, terrorism wings, VERA-2R, risk and protective factors
Introduction
In recent years, the number of violent extremists imprisoned for terrorism-related
offenses worldwide and in Europe, including the Netherlands, has increased (Europol,
2018; Van der Heide and Geenen, 2015). In the Netherlands, the general intelligence
and security service has been reporting threats from jihadi movements (consisting of
several hundred followers) for years (AIVD, 2020). Since ISIS proclaimed the caliphate
in 2014, there has been a constant threat from people who left the Netherlands for Syria or
Iraq and then returned, and who, because of the events there, increasingly turned away
from Dutch society (AIVD, 2014). However, the “heroic image”of ISIS quickly dissi-
pated and a migrant flow of people fleeing the war in Syria and Iraq began. Jihadist
groups also used these migrant routes to enter Europe (AIVD, 2015). In 2017, the terri-
tory of ISIS was almost completely recaptured by the local government of Syria and Iraq
(AIVD, 2017). Because there was no longer a caliphate, the jihadists focused more on
spreading their ideology and strengthening their network (AIVD, 2018). The jihadist
movement continues to pose a threat because it still sees itself as being at war with the
West (AIVD, 2019, 2020). The present study investigates which specific risk and protect-
ive factors are associated with violent male jihadist detainees who stayed in the specia-
lized terrorist wings during the period of the study. Among them were detainees who
attempted to travel to/returned from Syria or Iraq, foreign fighters, detainees who pre-
pared or committed an attack in the Netherlands, recruiters and financiers. Insights into
these risk and protective factors can contribute to better risk management to reduce
future recidivism, which is a development that is also taking place in other countries
(Borum, 2015).
Risk factors in violent extremist populations
There is no clear profile of “the violent extremist”(Bakker, 2006; Horgan, 2014;
Meleagrou-Hitchens et al., 2020; Sageman, 2008; Thijssen et al., 2021), as they vary
in historical, cultural, social, and psychopathological characteristics (Bakker, 2006;
Corner et al., 2018; Corner and Gill, 2015; Monahan, 2012; Pressman and Flockton,
2012; Thijssen et al., 2021; Weenink 2015). Some sociodemographic factors appear to
be associated with violent extremism but concern only one factor complicating general-
izability (Wolfowicz et al., 2019). Gender and educational level have shown only weak
effects with radicalization (Emmelkamp et al., 2020). In contrast, “activism”and
“perceived in-group superiority”in radicalized juveniles were strongly associated with
974 European Journal of Criminology 20(3)
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