Where's the Intelligence in the National Intelligence Model?
| Author | Maren Eline Kleiven |
| DOI | 10.1350/ijps.2007.9.3.257 |
| Published date | 01 September 2007 |
| Date | 01 September 2007 |
| Subject Matter | Article |
Where’s the intelligence in the National
Intelligence Model?
Maren Eline Kleiven
Politihøgskolen/The National Police University College, Pb 5027 Majorstua, 0301 Oslo. Tel:
+47 93 43 91 90/+47 23 19 98 33; email: Maren.Eline.Kleiven@phs.no
Received 13 August 2006; revised and accepted 1 November 2006
Keywords: National Intelligence Model, informants, sources, community
intelligence, risk management
Editorial Note: this article is a much reduced version of a Master’s level
dissertation submitted by the author as part of the course requirements
while reading for an MSc in International Police Science at the University
of Portsmouth, UK. The submitted dissertation was the winner of the 2006
Vathek Postgraduate Dissertation Prize.
Maren Eline Kleiven is a superintendent with 17
may explain the low status and use of community
years of experience in the Norwegian Police
intelligence.
Service. In 2005 she finished her MSc in Inter-
national Police Science at the Institute of Crim-
inal Justice Studies, University of Portsmouth
INTRODUCTION
with Distinction. She is undertaking a doctorate
The use of intelligence in both policing and
within International Policing at the London
other contexts has an international reson-
Metropolitan University.
ance whether in Iraq, Afghanistan, the
United Kingdom or in the US. This paper
will explore some of the implications of its
ABSTRACT
usage and its failings in the police in one
This article investigates the status of community
country, the United Kingdom. The findings
intelligence within The National Intelligence
are of particular importance in an elucida-
Model (NIM) in the UK. The study included
tion of the events that happened in London
focused interviews with 23 intelligence practi-
on 7 July 2005.
tioners across the UK police service, combined
The implementation of The National
with open-ended interviews with academics and
Intelligence Model (NIM) in the British
persons working to implement the NIM. The
police service in 2000 (Grieve, 2004;
results indicate that police officers and informants
NCIS, 2000) has been an attempt to pro-
are the most trusted and the most used sources of
fessionalise the police by providing a com-
intelligence, and that the use of community
mon structure and framework for police
intelligence is marginal. A combination of police
decision-making. The decision-making is
culture, lack of knowledge within management
intelligence-driven (John & Maguire, 2004,
and police officers, the absence of a general
p. 9) and John and Maguire state that it
definition of ‘intelligence’, a lack of guidance
‘provides . . . a cohesive intelligence frame-
International Journal of Police
Science and Management,
around community intelligence and the secrecy
work across the full range of levels of crim-
Vol. 9 No. 3, 2007, pp. 257–273.
© Vathek Publishing,
surrounding intelligence, stand out as factors that
inality and disorder’ (p. 8). For many police
1461–3557
Page 257
Where’s the intelligence in the National Intelligence Model?
officers intelligence equals information
and that community safety and quality of
from covert technical sources or covert
life issues were added late in its develop-
human intelligence sources such as inform-
ment. These outcomes are strongly linked
ants and undercover officers (Robertson,
to community intelligence. Finally the ter-
1992, as cited in Hebenton & Thomas,
rorist bombings in London on 7th July
1995) and for the purpose of this article is
2005 have increased the focus on the
termed traditional intelligence. Traditional
importance of community intelligence and
intelligence implies that information from
this will be discussed in the conclusion.
other sources such as the public and partner
organisations, is not commonly perceived as
Emergence of intelligence-led policing
intelligence by police officers. Several
Intelligence has been recognised as being
reports have highlighted that the NIM
important in policing since the formation
implementation has struggled to involve the
of the modern police service in the United
community, both public and partner
Kingdom where Sir Charles Rowan, one of
agencies (Cope, 2004; John & Maguire,
the two original commissioners of the
2003; Ratcliffe, 2003; Sheptycki, 2004). In
Metropolitan Police Service, had an intelli-
Diversity Matters Her Majesty’s Inspectorate
gence role in Wellington’s Peninsular Army
of Constabulary (HMIC, 2003) notes that
(Grieve, 2004, pp. 26–27; Metropolitan
not all forces in England and Wales are cur-
Police Service, 2005). However, for much
rently developing community intelligence in
of the service’s history, intelligence has had
the same way as criminal intelligence.
a peripheral role in policing, looked upon
Police use of intelligence from the com-
as something that adds to the investigative
munity has been subject to scrutiny and
picture (Ratcliffe, 2004) or supports the
critical comment, most significantly in the
operational capability of the organisation
Macpherson report (Macpherson, 1999),
(Nicholl, 2004, p. 55) rather than a tool that
the Bichard inquiry (Bichard, 2004) and the
drives strategy. The 1990s saw the emer-
Victoria Climbié inquiry (Laming, 2003).
gence of ‘Intelligence-led Policing’ (ILP)
This article, based on qualitative research
which came about as the result of two
conducted within eight English police
drivers, one internal and one external. The
forces, examines the perception and use of
internal drive came from developments
community intelligence as a source of intel-
with the use of intelligence in the police
ligence within the NIM. There will be a
service (Grieve), while the external drive
discussion around notable issues concerning
came from questions raised about the effi-
the NIM, particularly those that may influ-
ciency of police investigative practices
ence the use of community intelligence,
(Cope, Fielding, & Innes, 2005, p. 41). In
such as various interpretations of the term
1993 the Audit Commission reported that
‘intelligence’, a lack of clear guidance, and
most crimes were committed by a small
‘uneducated customers’. It will examine
number of offenders and that the police
how community intelligence is prioritised
should identify and target high-risk groups
within the NIM, and also set out possible
(Audit Commission, 1993). The emphasis
consequences of this prioritisation. The dis-
was on ‘targeting the criminal not the
sonance between the presentation of the
crime’ (Tilley, 2003b, p. 313) and that in
NIM, what it could achieve, and how it is
the absence of admission evidence the
actually used is noted. The answer to this
police would need to increase their focus
may be that the NIM was developed with
on evidence which is ‘forensic . . . and
the preliminary intentions of focusing on
intelligence-based’ (Audit Commission,
efficiency and heightening detection rates,
p. 32). The report encouraged the use of
Page 258
Kleiven
covert investigative techniques such as sur-
defines several tasks on ‘Level 1’ that should
veillance and the use of paid informants and
be especially prioritised and focused upon,
undercover officers (Harfield & Harfield,
such as managing volume crime, disorder
2005; Hobbs, 2001). Intelligence purported
and community issues, and cooperation
to be about targeting criminals and it was
with partners and outside agencies (John &
therefore closely linked to evidence of
Maguire, p. 43; NCIS). A vital part of the
criminal activity. In 1997 HMIC published
NIM is the ‘Tasking and Coordination
Policing with Intelligence (Her Majesty’s
Group’ (TCG). The TCGs hold frequent
Inspectorate of Constabulary, 1997a) which
tactical meetings (approximately every fort-
identified a number of key factors as essen-
night) to determine what intelligence to
tial for the implementation of intelligence-
gather, to make tactical assessments, and to
led policing; these included an integrated
decide how to allocate the resources most
intelligence structure, key performance
effectively. Strategic TCGs are held more
indicators, and the cooperation of partners.
seldom (approximately every six months).
Common to both reports is the focus on
These meetings set priorities both locally
intelligence gathering and analysis.
and at force-level. The model is repeated at
By the end of the decade a number of
regional level (Tilley, 2003b). Intelligence
policing organisations, including the Asso-
fuels the tasking and coordinating process
ciation of Chief Police Officers (ACPO),
of the NIM at each level and it is informed
had identified the need to formalise
by four intelligence products (Tilley,
intelligence-led policing into a policy that
pp. 321–324):
could be adopted nationally by the 43
(1) strategic assessments — long-term plan-
forces in England and Wales (Grieve, 2004;
ning, strategies and policies;
John & Maguire, 2003), and in 2000 the
(2) tactical assessments — short-term and
National Criminal Intelligence Service
operational planning;
(NCIS) piloted the NIM in three force
(3) target profiles — profiles of offenders;
areas. By the end of 2004, the NIM had
(4) problem profiles — profiles of series of
been implemented in varying degrees in all
offences or offenders.
43 police forces in England and Wales.
Supporters of the NIM claim it is a
Tilley (p. 323) states that ‘what comprises
‘business model’ that aims to professionalise
intelligence to feed into these products is
police...
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