Differences in emotional intelligence between effective and ineffective leaders in the public sector: an empirical study
| DOI | 10.1177/0020852311399857 |
| Published date | 01 June 2011 |
| Author | Martina Kotzé,Ian Venter |
| Date | 01 June 2011 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
International
Review of
Administrative
Article
Sciences
International Review of
Administrative Sciences
77(2) 397–427
Differences in emotional
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DOI: 10.1177/0020852311399857
ineffective leaders in the public
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sector: an empirical study
Martina Kotze´
University of the Free State, South Africa
Ian Venter
University of the Free State, South Africa
Abstract
The literature supporting leadership as the most important factor related to organiza-
tional success or failure is burgeoning. To a large extent, this may explain why so much
research focuses on factors influencing leadership effectiveness. A crucial aspect of
leadership research is to determine why some individuals perform effectively in lead-
ership roles while others demonstrate mediocre or low levels of effectiveness. Once
measures of individual characteristics have been validated within a relevant context,
they become useful sources of information for selecting, placing, and promoting people
into leadership positions. The aim of this study was to determine if there are statistically
significant differences in emotional intelligence between effective and ineffective leaders.
The sample included 114 leaders at the middle management level in a public sector
institution in South Africa. Each leader’s effectiveness was rated by themselves (self-
rating), as well as by four subordinates, thus involving 570 participants. The EQ-iÕ was
used as a measure of emotional intelligence, while Spangenberg and Theron’s
Leadership Behaviour Inventory was used to determine leadership effectiveness.
Multivariate analysis of variance indicated that the effective leaders scored significantly
higher on the total emotional intelligence measure. They also scored significantly higher
on two emotional intelligence composite scales (Interpersonal EQ and Stress
Management EQ) and six sub-scales (Self-actualization, Empathy, Social Responsibility,
Stress Tolerance, Problem-solving, and Optimism).
Points for practitioners
The relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness seems to
warrant organizational consideration of the possible inclusion of emotional intelligence,
among other competencies, as a selection and promotion criterion for future leaders.
Job analyses and the subsequent identification of job competencies can be used in order
Corresponding author:
Martina Kotze´, University of Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa
Email: kotzem@ufs.ac.za
398
International Review of Administrative Sciences 77(2)
to determine, among others, the emotional intelligence requirements of specific lead-
ership tasks, duties, and behaviours at different managerial levels within the organiza-
tion. Based on such predetermined criteria, valid measures of emotional intelligence
could be included as part of the selection and promotion process, along with other
desirable individual attributes, such as verbal and numerical abilities, personality attrib-
utes, and specific managerial and leadership competencies required for effective
leadership specifically within public sector institutions. Leadership development
courses
may
also
include
programmes
to
develop
emotional
intelligence
competencies. Potential candidates nominated to attend these courses could be
equipped with a vital understanding of their own emotional functioning as well as an
awareness of their influence on their followers. The continuous provision of feedback,
mentoring, and modelling is also a key consideration in the development of emotional
intelligence.
Keywords
emotional intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intra-personal intelligence, leadership,
leadership effectiveness
Introduction
Public sector institutions depend on their human resources in order to reach their
goals. Peters and Austin (1990: 201) state that it is not techniques that produce
quality products, educate children, or pick up the garbage on time, but people who
care. One topic related to the extraordinary effort of people is leadership, whether
referring to team effectiveness (Burke et al., 2006: 288) or individual effort (McColl-
Kennedy and Anderson, 2002: 555). Leadership is generally defined as the ability of
an individual to influence a group towards the achievement of goals (Hersey and
Blanchard, 1982: 83; Robbins, 2001: 242). Leaders are often required to be able to
drive transformation, lead people, and manage performance of their work units
effectively. Thus, the range of skills necessary for leaders to lead successfully within
public sector institutions has grown (Bass, 1985). On the one hand, it requires
transformational leaders who are able to provide meaning through visioning and
the creation of shared values, while eliciting unusual levels of effort from employees
to achieve this vision. On the other hand, it requires leaders who are able to ensure
that employees meet work requirements, while providing support and work-related
feedback (Spangenberg and Theron, 2002: 10).
A crucial aspect of leadership research is to determine why some individuals
perform effectively in leadership roles while others demonstrate mediocre or low
levels of effectiveness. Jewell (1998: 526) states that leaders’ individual features are
essential, not because they correspond in any one-to-one manner with some general
ability to lead, but because they affect the perceptions of the individuals who are to
be led. These perceptions, in turn, influence the motivation to be led and how
Kotze´ and Venter
399
followers respond to leaders’ behaviour. The literature is filled with efforts to
determine which human characteristics are associated with the ability to lead effec-
tively. Studies pertaining to the individual characteristics of effective leaders
include aspects such as personality (Judge and Bono, 2000: 760; Moss and Ngu,
2005: 72, 76, 82), humour (Avolio et al., 1999: 219; Kalma and Visser, 1993: 45;
Priest and Swain, 2002: 169), gender (Antonakis et al., 2003: 261; Berdahl, 1996:
21), and experience levels (Avery et al., 2003: 673; Bettin and Kennedy, 1990: 219).
Others focus on abilities such as cognitive and emotional abilities (Bar-On,
2006: 20; Cherniss, 2000: 449; Marshall-Mies et al., 2000: 135; Mumford et al.,
2000a: 87; 2000b: 155; 2000c: 11; 2000d: 115; Wolff et al., 2002: 510, 519; Zaccaro
et al., 2000: 37). This type of research is also referred to as individual difference
leadership (Yammarino, 2000: 5). Once measures of individual characteristics
have been validated within a relevant context, they become useful sources of
information for selecting, placing, and promoting people to leadership positions
(Jewell, 1998: 527).
A growing body of research is examining the association between emotional
intelligence and leadership effectiveness. A study conducted by Bar-On et al.
(2003: 1790) indicates that poor personal judgement in decision-making resulted
from lower levels of emotional intelligence, even though the subjects were of average
to above-average cognitive intelligence. Thus, while some researchers claim emo-
tional intelligence, or certain dimensions thereof such as awareness or expression, is
a necessity for leadership effectiveness (Bar-On, 2006: 16; Bono and Ilies, 2006: 331;
Dasborough, 2006: 175; Dulewicz and Higgs, 2005: 115; Goleman et al., 2003: 5;
Humphrey, 2002: 502; Mandel and Pherwani, 2003: 400; Robbins, 2001: 111; Rosete
and Ciarrochi, 2005: 390, 394; Sy et al., 2006: 471), others contest such claims as
premature or unsupported by scientific research (Cobb and Mayer, 2000: 15).
Studies relating to emotional intelligence have been carried out mainly in private
sector organizations. Vigoda-Gadot and Meisler (2010: 82) state that there is an
absence of serious discourse in public administration theory and writing about
feelings, emotions, and emotional intelligence, and that recent writing about the
required changes and reforms in the public sector and personnel management have
left this field almost untouched. A search of the major scientific publication search
engines reveals that, with the exception of Berman and West (2008) and Vigoda-
Gadot and Meisler (2010), since 1990 almost no study has dealt seriously with such
topics in relation to public sector organization theory. However, during those same
years, 1100 articles were published on the topic of emotions and emotional intel-
ligence in established, peer-reviewed journals in general management and organi-
zation psychology (Vigoda-Gadot and Meisler, 2010: 82).
According to Ring and Perry (1985: 276), managing conflict and getting people
to work together are critical skills for leaders in the public sector, since they have to
deal with frequently changing agendas and unstable coalitions. Therefore, the abil-
ity to encourage people to express their ideas, to listen carefully to what they say,
and to integrate many differing but complementary ideas are critical to public
sector leadership. Neal (2008: 373) emphasized the importance of educating leaders
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International Review of Administrative Sciences 77(2)
in the public sector in an integral or holistic way and of nourishing their emotional
well-being through understanding the importance of emotional intelligence and
their own emotional patterns.
On the other hand, because of the specific characteristics of public sector insti-
tutions, the requirements for leadership behaviour and effectiveness as well as
emotional intelligence might be...
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