Migrant Domestic Workers in Asia: Transnational Variations and Policy Concerns
| Date | 01 February 2016 |
| Published date | 01 February 2016 |
| Author | Stefan Cojocaru,M. Rezaul Islam |
| DOI | http://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12201 |
Migrant Domestic Workers in Asia:
Transnational Variations and Policy Concerns
M. Rezaul Islam* and Stefan Cojocaru**
ABSTRACT
The labour force of the migrant domestic workers (MDWs) has become one of the significant
policy concerns in Asia. Most of the Asian countries are not following (or not to an equal
extent) the Domestic Workers Convention 2011 (No. 189) which has been adopted by the
International Labour Organization (ILO). The objective of this article is to show the transna-
tional variations and policy concerns of the MDWs in Asia. Based on content analysis, the
authors found that there are considerable transnational variations of the MDWs in terms of
their age and nature of work, legal identity, working hours, and remuneration across Asian
countries. These variations have serious policy concerns in a number of areas such as lack of
available data of the MDWs, working conditions, exploitations, and gender issues. The find-
ings of the article would be an important guideline for adopting new legislation and labour
policy for the MDWs in Asia.
INTRODUCTION
Migrant domestic workers (MDWs) comprise a significant proportion of the migrant labour force in
the world. There are an estimated 232 million migrant workers around the world (ILO, 2015). In
2010 it was estimated that 52.6 million migrant workers were domestics. Estimates are difficult to
obtain and some sources quote a figure between 51 and 100 million MDW’s (ILO, 2013b). The
numbers represent an increase of more than 19 million since the mid-1990s. Most strikingly,
domestic work accounts for 7.5 per cent of women’s wage employment worldwide and a far
greater share in some regions (ILO, 2013b). In Asia, at least 21.5 million women and men work in
private households (or 41 per cent of all DWs worldwide) (ILO, 2011a). The International Labor
Organization (ILO) (2015) notes that globalization, demographic shifts, conflicts, income inequali-
ties and climate change will encourage ever more workers and their families to cross borders in
search of employment and security. Tyner (1999) argues that within Asia, economic and demo-
graphic trends have conjoined to produce a significant demand for domestic work.
To a large extent, migrant domestic work involves a variety of tasks including cleaning, cooking,
shopping and laundry, as well as caring for children, the elderly, disabled and other household mem-
bers in need of care that women have traditionally shouldered in the home without pay (ILO, 2007).
Due to their low level of education, unknown environment, and financial dependency, the relation-
ship between DWs and employers is highly unequal. Many DWs are vulnerable to verbal, physical,
or sexual abuse by their employers. Often differences in race, class, and citizenship between the
employer and the MDWs exacerbate this inequality and vulnerability (WIEGO, 2014). Most of them
live in their employer’s home. They are dependent on the good or bad will of their employer.
* University of Malaya, Malaysia and University of Dhaka, Bangladesh
** Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi, Romania
doi: 10.1111/imig.12201
©2015 The Authors
International Migration ©2015 IOM
International Migration Vol. 54 (1) 2016
ISS N 00 20- 7985 Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Women domestic workers are subjected to gender discrimination, physical and psychological
abuse and sexual exploitation, prejudice and stereotyping in relation to their work, which is
regarded as low status and accorded little value (Human Right Watch, 2006). The lack of govern-
ment cooperation, and diplomatic understanding and coordination across the countries pins them in
a weak position. Since they work behind the closed doors of private households, DWs are isolated;
and they have limited mobility. They are shielded from public view and attention, and are unap-
proachable by conventional policy tools (ILO, 2013b). Based on the content analysis, this article
attempts to show transnational variations of the MDWs such as age and nature of work, legal iden-
tity of the MDWs, working hours, and remuneration across the Asian countries. To consider these
variations, this article addressed a number of policy concerns such as difficulties in gathering data
on MDWs, working conditions, exploitation, and gender issues. Finally, the article offers some sug-
gestions to overcome these concerns.
CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL ASPECTS AND EXISTING SCENARIO OF
MDWS IN ASIA
This article covers four main concepts: domestic workers (DWs); migrant domestic workers
(MDWs); transnational variations; and policy concerns. According to ILO Domestic Workers Con-
vention, 2011 (No. 189):
“(a) the term domestic work means work performed in or for a household or households;
(b) the term domestic worker means any person engaged in domestic work within an employment
relationship;
(c) a person who performs domestic work only occasionally or sporadically and not on an occupa-
tional basis is not a domestic worker.”(ILO, 2011a: 2)
According to the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2013a: 3) and the International Organi-
zation for Migration (IOM, 2009, 12),
“MDWs are any persons moving to another country or region to better their material or social con-
ditions and improve the prospect for themselves or their family, engaged in a work relationship per-
forming ‘in or for a household or households’.”
This article considered the above as a working definition of the MDWs. MDWs are also known
as foreign home care workers, foreign domestic workers, foreign domestic help, transnational
domestic workers, foreign domestic employees, and domestic migrant workers (ILO, 2012b).
Transnational variations suggest the differences which exist in nations across the Asian countries.
On the other hand, policy concerns mean the principles of acts adopted by the international bodies
(e.g. ILO) and national organizations (e.g. Government or Ministry of Labour) around the MDWs.
These include some specific areas e.g. difficulties in gathering data on MDWs, working conditions,
exploitations, and gender issues.
The recent economic crisis in developing countries is forcing more people to the wealthier coun-
tries as MDWs. Tyner (1999) argued that many Asian countries such as the Philippines, Indonesia
and Sri Lanka, have encouraged the export of labour in order to reduce unemployment and
underemployment levels and increase the level of human capital as migrant workers return with
skills acquired abroad, and increase foreign revenue through remittances of migrant workers. DWs
employment constitutes between 4 and 10 per cent of total employment in developing countries
(UN Women, 2013). There are two sources of DWs in Asia. One is the sending countries, e.g.
Migrant Domestic Workers in Asia 49
©2015 The Authors. International Migration ©2015 IOM
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