Pakistani Gangs in Bradford
| Author | Ikhlaq Din,Cedric Cullingford |
| Date | 01 September 2006 |
| Published date | 01 September 2006 |
| DOI | 10.1350/pojo.2006.79.3.258 |
| Subject Matter | Article |
DR IKHLAQ DIN
Research Fellow, School of Health Studies, University of
Bradford,
CEDRIC CULLINGFORD
Professor of Education, School of Education and Professional
Development, University of Huddersfield
PAKISTANI GANGS IN BRADFORD
Despite the media coverage and the growing interest in
‘gangs’, there is little empirical literature on gangs in the UK
and even fewer on gangs from minority ethnic communities,
particularly those from the Pakistani community. The dis-
turbances in Bradford in 1995 and more recently in 2001 point
to street gang formation among young Pakistanis, which are
diverse in their nature and in activities. This article explores
the activities and causes of Pakistani gangs as perceived by
non-gang members. These issues were explored through
empirical research (in-depth semi-structured interviews) on the
experience and views of young Pakistani children using a
particular context as an example.
Introduction
Much of the research on gangs tends to be derived from experi-
ence in the United States and there is little empirical evidence in
the British context, particularly on ‘Pakistani gangs’. This is sur-
prising despite media coverage around the disturbances in Brad-
ford in 1995 and also in 2001. Reference was made to male
Pakistani ‘gangs’ in Bradford (Bradford Commission, 1996) but
this has not been followed up by empirical research despite the
topicality of the subject. The necessity for being culturally
sensitive when dealing with minority ethnic communities to
examine crime and criminal activity partly explains the limited
extent of research inquiries into this area. Although there is
literature on ‘Black youth culture’ this has not been followed up
with equal curiosity about ‘Asian’ (or Pakistani) youth cultures
(Gilroy, 1987; McRobbie, 1991; Sharma et al., 1996). On the
other hand, more recently the problem of youth gangs on British
streets has been the target of much media attention (BBC News,
2005a; 2005b; 2005c; Britten, 2005).
This article explores gang activity as reported by non-gang
members in the Pakistani community in Bradford. The article is
divided into two sections: the first part exploring gang activity
258 The Police Journal, Volume 79 (2006)
and the effect of Pakistani gangs in the community; the second
exploring some of the underlying causes and the reasons for
joining gangs as reported by young people.
Gangs are not a new phenomenon in the UK. The interest in
youth violence has been steadily increasing since the 1870s
(Humphries, 1981; Pearson, 1983; Schwarz, 1996; Davies, 1988;
1999). There are issues about what a ‘gang’ is (Thrasher,
1927/1963; Esbensen et al., 2001). Research has focused on a
particular type of gang, for example ‘street gangs’ (Klein, 1995)
and youth gangs (Spergal, 1995), often overlooking others.
These definitional issues appear to be of continuing importance.
Shropshire and McFarquhar (2002) make the distinction between
‘crime firms’, which are criminal groups who come together to
engage in criminal activity, and ‘street gangs’ which are formed
for various social and psychological reasons. Klein (2001)
defines ‘street gangs’ as those having a strong gang identity,
moderate levels of organisation and a variety of structures. The
problem with definitions is that they tend to limit the idea of
gangs, such as perception of a gang being well structured and
organised (Decker, 2001). Horowitz (1990) suggests that
researchers tend to formulate definitions of gangs that run
parallel to their own theoretical approach. In response to the
issue of definition, Horowitz deliberately described the range of
activity of gangs loosely as ‘any group who uses violence or the
threat or fear of violence to further a criminal purpose, but
excluding football hooligans and terrorists’ (Horowitz, 1990).
The make up of a ‘gang’ is often complex and varies
between gangs. Stelfox (1998) in his research based on a postal
survey of all police forces in the UK found that gangs were
predominantly male, while one had female members, and the
average age of gang members was from the mid to late twenties.
They did not appear to have a named leader who directed the
activities of the gang. In terms of the age of members, Shrop-
shire and McFarquhar (2002) found that the average age of
becoming a gang member appears to be getting younger.
Mares (2001) discussed the activities of two gangs operating
in Manchester who had involvement in drug trading. Bullock and
Tilley (2002) found that 23 male gang members are known to
exist in the Manchester area and four major street gangs exist in
south Manchester with members ranging from 26 to 67. Sim-
ilarly, Bennett and Holloway (2004) report that 15% of arrestees
had either a current or past experience as a gang member and
that the vast majority of members were male. They also report
that 5% of all gang members and 4% of current gang members
The Police Journal, Volume 79 (2006) 259
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