Prohibition and Cannabis Use in Australia: A Survey of 18- to 29-year-olds
| Author | Neil Donnelly,Don Weatherburn,Craig Jones |
| DOI | 10.1375/acri.36.1.77 |
| Date | 01 April 2003 |
| Published date | 01 April 2003 |
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THE AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF CRIMINOLOGY
VOLUME 36 NUMBER 1 2003 PP.77–93
Address for correspondence: Dr Don Weatherburn, NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics
and Research, GPO Box 6, Sydney NSW 2001. Email: Don_J_Weatherburn@agd.nsw.gov.au
Prohibition and Cannabis Use in Australia:
A Survey of 18- to 29-year-olds
Don Weatherburn and Craig Jones
NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research, Australia
Neil Donnelly
NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research, and National Drug Research Institute,
Curtin University of Technology, Australia
The prevalence of cannabis use in Australia has increased in the last
few years, prompting some to argue that the prohibition against
cannabis is both costly and ineffective and should be lifted. Surveys
designed to evaluate the effect of reducing or eliminating sanctions for
cannabis use, however, have been more concerned about the effect of
cannabis law reform on the number of new cannabis users than about its
effect on cannabis consumption among existing users. This is a serious
oversight because most of the risks associated with cannabis are associ-
ated with regular rather than occasional use of the drug. The present
research was designed to assess some of the potential effects of lifting
the prohibition against cannabis use.The study results suggest that, while
the illegal status of cannabis does act to limit its use, it is not a major
factor in decisions about whether to use cannabis or to cease using it.
Prohibition does, however, appear to limit consumption among existing
cannabis users and particularly among those who use the drug on a
weekly basis or more frequently.
Cannabis is a recreational drug which appears to have few acute toxic effects.
Novice users sometimes experience very unpleasant effects, such as anxiety and
panic reactions, and very high doses of cannabis have sometimes been known to
exacerbate psychotic symptoms in individuals with a history of schizophrenia (Hall,
Solowij & Lemon, 1994, p. 7; Channabasavanna, Paes & Hall, 1999). The chronic
effects of regular cannabis use are not entirely clear but do include increased risk of
dependence (Swift, Hall & Teesson, 2001) and may include increased risk of respira-
tory diseases, impaired foetal development and subtle deficits in cognitive function-
ing, including disruption to memory and attention (Hall, Degenhardt & Lynskey,
2001; Solowij et al., 2002). On the other side of the ledger, there is some evidence
that cannabis may be of use in treating glaucoma and in reducing the nausea associ-
ated with anti-cancer drugs (Hall, Solowij & Lemon, 1994, pp. 14–15).
crim36_1 4/1/03 10:06 AM Page 77
The major potential acute health risk associated with cannabis use is road
trauma. The risk arises from the slowing effect of cannabis on psychomotor perfor-
mance, particularly among those who consume cannabis and alcohol together
(Chesher, Dauncey, Crawford & Horn; 1986; Smiley; 1999). However, evidence for
the actual contribution of cannabis to road accidents is mixed. Two recent
Australian studies indicate that the prevalence of THC in isolation from other
drugs may be relatively low in fatally (Drummer, 1999, as cited in Austroads, 2000)
and non-fatally injured (Longo et al., 2000) drivers (about 3%). On the other
hand, a study of fatal accidents in the Central Coast of New South Wales found
that 25% of drivers under the age of 45 killed in road accidents tested positive for
recent cannabis use (Tutt, Bauer, Arms & Parera, 2001).
Walsh and Mann (1999), in a large representative sample study of cannabis
users in Ontario, Canada, found that the population prevalence of self-reported
driving under the influence of cannabis was quite low (1.9%). However, nearly one
quarter of those who reported using cannabis in the past year also admitted to
having driven within one hour of smoking cannabis. Given the potential reluc-
tance of people to admit to driving while intoxicated, this may be an underestimate
of the problem. If driving under the influence of cannabis is prevalent among
regular cannabis users, they may be making a significant, if as yet unmeasured
contribution to road accidents. Clearly, while there are no solid grounds for assert-
ing that cannabis intoxication is a major cause of road trauma, there are equally no
grounds yet for rejecting the hypothesis.
All Australian States and Territories prohibit the use, possession or sale of
cannabis. Most also invest what seem to be significant resources into enforcing that
prohibition. There are, unfortunately, no national figures on prosecutions for
cannabis use or possession. In New South Wales (NSW) in 2000, however, there
were 6621 appearances in Local Courts in which at least one of the charges was for
cannabis use or possession. Fifty-eight of these charges resulted in sentences of
imprisonment (NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research, 2001).
Superficially at least, the prohibition against cannabis use in Australia has done
little to discourage people from using the drug. The latest national survey indicates
that 44% of Australian males and 35% of females have used the drug at least once in
their lifetime. Twenty-one per cent of males and 15% of females reported using
cannabis in the last 12 months. Australian national survey data indicate that cannabis
use is increasing. The prevalence of “lifetime” cannabis use rose from 31% in 1995 to
39% in 1998, while the prevalence of “last year” cannabis use rose from 13% to 18%
over the same period (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2000).
The apparent failure of prohibition to discourage or curb the growth in
cannabis use has sometimes prompted calls for the abandonment of prohibition
(e.g., Marks, 1994). Studies of the effect of removing or softening the prohibition
against cannabis use appear to lend support to these calls. Single (1989) found no
difference between trends in the prevalence of cannabis use among states in the
United States (US) which had and those which had not reduced the sanctions
against cannabis use and possession. Johnston, O’Malley and Bachman (1981)
found a similar pattern of results in surveys of high school seniors. MacCoun and
Reuter (1997, 2001) also cite survey evidence indicating that the long-standing
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DON WEATHERBURN, CRAIG JONES AND NEIL DONNELLY
THE AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND JOURNAL OF CRIMINOLOGY
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