The Wood for the Paper: Old-Growth Forest, Hemp and Environmental Harm
| Author | Mark Halsey |
| DOI | 10.1177/000486589703000202 |
| Published date | 01 August 1997 |
| Date | 01 August 1997 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
The Wood for the Paper:
Old-Growth Forest, Hemp
and Environmental Harm'
Mark Halseyt
This article examines the politico-legal construction
of
environmentalharm.
It does so by comparing
and
contrasting the production processes
and
legislation relating to the clearfel/ing
of
old-growth forest
and
harvesting
of
fibre hemp for paperproducts. It asks why it is lawful to engage in an activity
which is ecologically harmful (ie clearfel/ing old-growth fores!), and,
conversely, why it is il/egal to engage in an activity which is ecologically
benign (ie cultivating fibre hemp). Through an explication
of
the relative harm
resulting from the processing
of
these resources, questions are raised as to
the ecological utility
of
legislation that permits the destruction
of
a unique
resource but prohibits the harvesting
of
a sustainable alternative. The article
suggests, amongst other things, that criminologists
need
to make a clear
analytical distinction between events termed 'environmental crime'
and
those which might correctly be termed 'serious instances
of
ecological
destruction'. More generally, the paper attempts to isolate the different
conceptions
of
environmental harm that emerge from the comparative study,
and
proceeds to outline some
of
the more serious implications for present
criminological approaches to the issue
of
environmental harm.
Sanctioning the unsustainable: clearfelling
old-growth forest and the depletion
of
biodiversity
Given the fact thatold-growth forest (as opposed tonative forest generally) is,
in ecological terms, the most significant (see below), and that this same forest
accounts for about 80% of timber extracted from native forests each year, and,
further, that approximately 90% of export woodchips are sourced from
old-growth trees, a sound argument can be made that the vast bulk of harm
levied on Australian native forest occurs in relation to old-growth forest. Each
year about 5 million tonnes (6.25 million tonnes for 1996/97) of old-growth
eucalypt forest are transformed into the paper 'necessary' for the operation of
photocopy machines, computer printers, stationers, publishers, and so on.
Current logging rates mean that by about the year 2060 only 1%(500,000
hectares) of the eucalypt forest exhibited prior to European settlement will
remain. In 1992, the National Forest Policy Statement -drafted and signed
by all states and territories except Tasmania-s- offered the following definition
of old-growth forest:
Forest that is ecologically mature and has been subject to negligible unnatural
disturbance such as logging, roading and clearing. The definition focuses on forest
*Received: 20 January 1996; accepted in revised form: 1 February 1997.
tPhD candidate, Department of Criminology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria
3052.
121
122 (1997) 30 The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology
in which the upper stratum or overstorey is in the late mature to over mature growth
phases (Commonwealth of Australia 1992:49)
For most eucalypt species, the terms 'late mature' and 'over mature'
(old-growth) denote trees in excess of 150 years old.
Eucalypt forest covers about 25.6 million hectares and 'represents the major
timber production resource' (Resource Assessment Commission (RAC)
1992b:84). Of this, 20.953 million hectares is regrowth (ie forest recovering
from previous severe disturbance such as logging) and 4.652 million hectares
(18%) is thought to be 'unlogged' or subject to 'negligible human disturbance'
(ie old growth). Australian unlogged eucalypt forest represents about 5% of
such forests existing just over two centuries ago (see Milledge in
Joss 1994:14). That is, approximately 65 million hectares (or 95%) of the
original (old-growth) eucalypt forest resource no longer exist (see
RAC 1990:7; Lunney 1991:5-6; Joss 1994:6). Of the 4.6 million hectares of
extant old-growth forest, 91% (4.186 million hectares) is open to commercial
exploitation. In other words, only '9 per cent [418,000 hectares] of all
remaining unlogged eucalypt forest is in conservation reserves'
(RAC 1992b:145).
Prior to 1960, with the exception of Western Australia, timber from
Australian forests was extracted predominantly via a process known as
'selective logging' (RAC 1992b:157). This meant that all but the best trees
suitable for sawmilling were left standing. Typically, 80% or more of 'young
regrowth and older trees' were preserved, 'thereby retaining many important
habitats' (Jones 1975:29). Over the past twenty-five years (the time for which
export woodchip licences have been in operation) the comparatively benign
practice of selective logging has, for the most part, been superseded by the
ecologically devastating harvesting practice known as clearfelling (Australian
Conservation Foundation (ACF) 1976:3; RAC 1992c:N8). Clearfelling is a
technique that allows the removal of over 90% of the trees from areas (coupes)
ranging in size from 10 to 60 hectares (RAC 1992a:17; see also
Routley & Routley 1973:169-96).
The total area of old-growth eucalypt forest logged in 1990 amounted to
77,525 hectares1(an area equivalent in size to 40,000 Melbourne Cricket
Grounds). More than 90% of this logged area, 70,024 hectares, involved the
silvicultural (harvesting) method of clearfelling. In gross terms, wood
removals from old-growth forest in 1990 totaled,about 8.03 million tonnes.
Given that total hardwood removals from native forests (old-growth and
regrowth) in 1990 was about 9.8 million tonnes (10,870,000 cubic metres),
old-growth forest accounted for more than 80% (8.04 million tonnes) of all
hardwood logs harvested at this time (RAC 1992b:279).
In 1990, about 5.5 million tonnes of the 8 million tonnes (ie 70%) of wood
extracted from old-growth eucalypt forest were used in the production of
paper. About 1.2 million tonnes were processed domestically while 4.36
million tonnes were exported for processing in Japan, Taiwan and Korea.
Woodchips from old-growth forests (ie the tiny pieces of wood produced by
feeding 'defective' or 'crooked' trees unsuitable for sawn timber purposes into
a chipping machine) accounted for 91% of the total woodchip export volume
of 4.82 million tonnes for the period 1990-91 (RAC 1992c:G34, table G.2).
Only 9% of export woodchips for this period came from regrowth forests and
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