Using experience sampling methodology to understand how educational leadership students solve problems on the fly
| Date | 29 April 2014 |
| DOI | https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-12-2012-0135 |
| Pages | 379-403 |
| Published date | 29 April 2014 |
| Author | Jen Katz-Buonincontro,Joel M. Hektner |
| Subject Matter | Education,Administration & policy in education,School administration/policy |
Using experience sampling
methodology to understand how
educational leadership students
solve problems on the fly
Jen Katz-Buonincontro
Educational Leadership, Drexel University, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, USA, and
Joel M. Hektner
Family Science and Human Development, North Dakota State University,
Fargo, North Dakota, USA
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to report on a pilot study of the emotional states associated with
educational leadership students’attempts at problem solving “on the fly” in their schools and organizations.
Design/methodology/approach – Experience sampling methodology (ESM) was used to study
375 “problem-perceiving moments” in leadership students using iPod touc hes, followed by individual
cognitive interviews (CIs).
Findings – Students reported higher levels of intrinsic motivation and cognitive engagement when
solving new vs old problems. Students experienced both more p ositive and more negative emotions
when attempting to problem solve than when reporting that they were not solving problems, yet lower
levels of self-efficacy coupled with insufficient time to reflect on their leadership goals while at work.
Consistent with previous research, students reported engaging in metacognitive and reflective
activities more frequently while with supervisors and colleagues. In the CIs, students’ narrative
descriptions generally supported the quantitative analysis. For example, students described “putting
out fires,” and discussed multi-tasking as a deterrent to problem solving. They also talked about
balancing the emotional “highs and lows” throughout their day as well as the role of social affirmation
in the problem solving process.
Research limitations/implications – While the limitations of this small pilot study include a small
sample using self-report data, the implications for educational leadership faculty are to explicitly
integrate psychological research into leadership courses to expand students’ knowledge of creative
problem solving and focus on building their self-efficacy.
Originality/value – Even though students might not perceive they are good at problem solving,
faculty can help them learn how to regulate their emotions and create teamwork conditions fo r
constructively vetting problems. In turn, this kind of instr uction and research can enhance leadership
students’ persistence as problem solvers, which may help prevent leadership burnout and turnover.
Keywords Research, Emotions, Leadership development, Problem solving, Creative thinking,
Cognitive interviews, Experience sampling methodology
Paper type Research p aper
The capacity to perceive and solve problems is a necessary and advantageous skill
of educational leaders (Milstein and Kruger, 1997; Orr, 2006; Perez et al., 2011;
Schmidt-Wilk, 2011) that requires high levels of emotional management (McDowelle
and Buckner, 2002; Weick, 1996). Problem-solving orientations have been linked to
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/0957-8234.htm
Received 13 December 2012
Revised 11 April 2013
19 August 2013
2 September 2013
9 September 2013
Accepted 10 September 2013
Journal of Educational
Administration
Vol.52 No.3, 2014
pp. 379-403
rEmeraldGroup Publishing Limited
0957-8234
DOI 10.1108/JEA-12-2012-0135
The authors would like to thank the Office of Faculty Development and Equity at Drexel
University for the Career Development Award grant that supported this research project.
379
Solve problems
on the fly
a higher degree of program implementation and continuation in schools (Louis et al.,
1981), and effective problem solving has also been related to a leader’s ability to initiate
organizational change and preserve survival (Reiter-Palmon and Robinson, 2009). Despite
this research, few empirical studies have investigated the emotional and cognitive
experiences of leadership students as they go about day-to-day problem solving in their
roles as educational leaders. This paper reports on a pilot study using experience
sampling methodology (ESM) and cognitive interviews (CIs) to study the cognitive and
emotional states associated with students’ abilities to sense difficulties (Torrance, as cited
in Kerr and Gagliardi, 2003), or to problem solve “on the fly.”
The importance of problem solving in educational leadership
The influence of school leaders is second only to instruction for improving student
outcomes (Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO), 2008), making it critical to
research how leaders mentally approach their daily leadership practice (Neck and
Manz, 2010). This includes building an empirical understanding of school leaders’
beliefs in their own ability to do their jobs (i.e. self-efficacy; Dee et al., 2003; Edwards
et al., 2002; Tschannen-Moran and Gareis, 2004) as well as their ability to problem solve
effectively (Law et al., 2003; Leithwood and Steinbach, 1995). Effective implementation
of leadership charge such as promoting student learnin g and staff growth (CCSCO,
ISLLC standard 2) can be complicated by administering new prog rams and state and
federal mandates, thus requiring constant problem solving.
Thus, problem solving has re-emerged as an important ability for school leaders,
and is an increasingly valued framework in leadership preparatio n (Basadur, 2004;
Fullan, 2002; Hunter et al., 2011; Milstein and Kruger, 1997; Orr, 2006; Perez et al., 2011;
Puccio et al., 2007; Rickards, 1993; Sandler et al., 1972; Stenmark et al., 2011; Sternberg,
2004, 2005a, b; Tomlinson, 2004). This framework has roots in cognitive science, and in
situated cognition scholarship (Brown et al., 1989; Scardamalia and Bereiter, 2006).
Problem solving has been defined as a “type of thinking embedded in activity”
(Leithwood et al., 2003, p. 69) that requires “sensing difficulties, problems, gaps in
information, missing elements [emphasis added]” (Torrance, as cited in
Kerr and Gagliardi, 2003, p. 16). The way a leader thinks and feels about problems
is considered to be an indicator of her external behavior (Leithwood and Steinbach,
1995). That is, how a leader conceptualizes problems influence s how she ultimately
solves problems and effectively leads an organization. However, little research has
emphasized the initial phases of problem identification (Pretz et al., 2003), and the
corresponding emotions (Brown, 2000) that undergird such learning in leadership
preparation programs(Simpson and Marshall, 2010). Onceproblems are perceived, steps
to solve them include “making guesses or formulating hypotheses about these
deficiencies; testing and retesting them; and finally in communicating the results”
(Torrance, as cited in Kerr and Gagliardi, 2003, p. 16).
A combination of environmental factors, situational issues, personality, and
experience play a part in a leader’s ability to problem-solve (Cuban, 2001), but his or her
emotional state in the cognitive process of problem solving is important and
underemphasized in research. Strong negative emotions or emotional “numbness” can
block a person’s ability to derive creative solutions to problems (Isaksen et al., 2011).
For example, a leader who reports fe eling overwhelmed or withdrawn and isolated
might not be able to handle uncertainty in the work environment or be receptive to new
ideas from other colleagues, supervisors, and supervisees. Consider how newly minted
leaders embrace their jobs with energy and enthusiasm, but often become bogged
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