Victim-blaming and image-based sexual abuse
| Author | Asher Flynn,Elena Cama,Anastasia Powell,Adrian J Scott |
| DOI | http://doi.org/10.1177/26338076221135327 |
| Published date | 01 March 2023 |
| Date | 01 March 2023 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
Victim-blaming and image-
based sexual abuse
Asher Flynn
Criminology, School of Social Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
Elena Cama
Centre for Social Research in Health, University of New South Wales,
Sydney, Australia
Anastasia Powell
Justice & Legal Studies, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
Adrian J Scott
Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London, UK
Abstract
Image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) is a growing, global problem. This article reports on a mixed-
methods, multi-jurisdictional study of IBSA across the United Kingdom, Australia and Aotearoa/
New Zealand. Attitudes of blame and minimisation of harms among a sample of the general
population (n=6109) were analysed using two multiple regression analyses that assessed the abil-
ity of three demographic and three experiential characteristics to predict attitudes. Interviews
were also conducted with 43 stakeholders and analysed thematically. Survey respondents who
attributed more blame and minimised harms to a greater extent tended to be men, heterosexual,
and had experienced or perpetrated more IBSA behaviours. Those who reported greater
engagement in sexual self-image behaviours were also more likely to minimise harms.
Interview participants suggested attitudes of blame and minimisation may be linked to broader
problematic attitudes around sexual violence and sexual double standards, with women more
likely to experience blame for IBSA. Our findings are of international relevance and highlight
the need for multifaceted policies, education campaigns and training that challenge these attitudes.
Keywords
Victim-blaming, image-based sexual abuse, revenge pornography, sexual violence, cybercrime, attitudes
Date received: 4 March 2022; accepted: 11 October 2022
Corresponding author:
Asher Flynn, Criminology,School of Social Sciences, Monash University, 20 Chancellor’s Walk, Clayton,AU-VIC 3800,
Australia.
Email: asher.flynn@monash.edu
Article
Journal of Criminology
2023, Vol. 56(1) 7–25
© The Author(s) 2022
Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/26338076221135327
journals.sagepub.com/home/anj
Introduction
Researchers continue to find that people attribute blame towards victims of sexual violence
based on factors such as alcohol or drug consumption, what the victim was doing or
wearing, and their relationship with the perpetrator (Burgin & Flynn, 2021; Pinciotti &
Orcutt, 2021). Such attitudes not only increase the harm experienced by victims, who may
internalise these negative judgments but also create barriers to help seeking (Anderson &
Overby, 2021; Flynn, 2015; Henry, Flynn & Powell, 2015; Lichty & Gowen, 2021; Trottier
et al., 2021). Research further suggests that when these attitudes are held by police and first
respondents (e.g., support workers, family, and friends), they can negatively shape the
responses victims receive (Mourtgos et al., 2021; O’Neal, 2019). This can lead to self-shaming
and poor mental health outcomes for victims and contribute to reduced social understandings of
sexual violence.
Image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) is an emerging form of sexual violence that involves the
non-consensual taking, distribution, and/or threat to distribute nude or sexual imagery of
another person. Much of the research to date has focused on non-consensual image distribution
(Eaton et al., 2018; Lenhart et al., 2016) and its detrimental impacts on victims (Bates, 2017;
Powell et al., 2022b; Rackley et al., 2021). There has also been a body of work on consensual
image-sharing (‘sexting’), particularly focused on attitudes, behaviours, and potential adverse
outcomes among adolescents (Dobson & Ringrose, 2016; Doyle et al., 2021; Ringrose et al.,
2013). Less knowledge exists on attitudes that are held in relation to IBSA.
This article responds to this knowledge gap, examining attitudes of blame and minimisation
of harms drawing on a quantitative general population survey of 6109 respondents aged 16 to
64 years across the United Kingdom (UK), (n=2028), Australia (n=2054) and Aotearoa/New
Zealand (ANZ) (n=2027). Qualitative interviews were also conducted with 43 stakeholders
(n=10 ANZ; n=33 UK)
1
including those working with sexual and/or domestic and family
violence victims; policy, government and non-government organisations; internet safety orga-
nisations; and legal stakeholders (e.g., police, lawyers, investigators).
2
Informed by original
analyses of the data, this article explores factors associated with attitudes towards sexting,
IBSA, victim-blaming and minimisation of harms, including demographic characteristics,
past engagement in sexual self-image behaviours, and self-reported experiences of victimisa-
tion and perpetration.
The article begins by providing a brief discussion of related literature, before outlining our
methodology. We then report the results, including stakeholder perspectives on victim-blaming
and harm minimisation attitudes, the sources and impacts of these attitudes, and the correlates
for respondents holding such attitudes. In particular, we explore patterns in attitudes of blame
and minimisation, and the differential impacts these may have on victims’support-seeking
behaviours. We conclude by discussing key findings, implications and study limitations.
IBSA, blame and harm minimisation
IBSA is a serious form of technology-facilitated sexual violence. Research has found IBSA to
be relatively common (Eaton et al., 2018; Henry et al., 2019a; Patel & Roesch, 2022; Lenhart
et al., 2016; Snaychuk & O’Neill, 2020) and increasing (Powell et al., 2022a). Consistent
among these studies is a higher rate among people who are gender and sexuality diverse, mir-
roring the victimisation experiences of other forms of sexual violence. Research has also
8Journal of Criminology 56(1)
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