Victim support, the state, and fellow human beings
| Author | Annika af Sandeberg,Kerstin Svensson,Carina Gallo |
| Published date | 01 January 2019 |
| Date | 01 January 2019 |
| DOI | 10.1177/0269758017754096 |
| Subject Matter | Articles |
Article
Victim support, the state,
and fellow human beings
Carina Gallo,
San Francisco State University, USA
Lund University, Sweden
Annika af Sandeberg
Stockholm University, Sweden
Kerstin Svensson
Lund University, Sweden
Abstract
This article focuses on the interdependence between the state and Sweden’s largest non-
governmental victim support umbrella organization, Victim Support Sweden (VSS). In particular,
it examines how government funding of VSS has developed since the end of the 1980s. Based on a
qualitative analysis of government bills and VSS’s annual reports, the article gives a detailed account
of how a non-governmental organization and the state are interconnected in a complementary
relationship. The results show that VSS has differentiated itself from the state and government
agencies by defining its victim support volunteers as ‘fellow human beings’. The state and VSS have,
however, always been interdependent, which blurs the line between the two. VSS has relied on
government grants, while the state has leaned on VSS for victim support. In addition, many of VSS’s
local victim support centers have signed cooperation agreements with municipalities, which may
give municipalities greater control over the centers’ work.
Keywords
Victim support, civil society, non-governmental organizations, non-profit funding
Introduction
Sweden has a long tradition of being a strong welfare state. In the 1980s, generic non-governmental
victim support centers were established in Sweden. In these organizations, volunteers gave support
Corresponding author:
Carina Gallo, San Francisco State University, School of Public Affairs & Civic Engagement, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San
Francisco, CA 94132, USA.
Email: cgallo@sfsu.edu
International Review of Victimology
2019, Vol. 25(1) 91–106
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DOI: 10.1177/0269758017754096
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to victims of crime in a welfare model where the state was supposed to cover the needs of its
citizens. Previous studies have indicated that Swedish victim support organizations emerged from
a changed welfare state and a restructured organizational landscape of non-governmental organi-
zations (NGOs) (Svensson, 2007). In the post-war period, social welfare provisions of all kinds
were primarily a government matter. The voluntary sector was influenced by leftist ideologies of
that time and advocated for the rights of different marginalized groups, such as social services
clients and people with disabilities (Lundstro¨m, 1995). In the beginning of the 1980s, ideas
associated with neoliberalism began to seriously enter the public debate and criticism of the
comprehensive Swedish welfare state grew strong (Boreus, 1997; Tham, 1995). The withdrawal
of the welfare state left a space for NGOs to fill. Letting NGOs complement the governmental
sector was a way for the government to respond to privatization demands and obtain more
resources in times of fiscal difficulties (Lundstro¨m, 1995). Since the late 1980s, the state has
increasingly invested in NGOs to emphasize the fact that the state cannot solve all problems.
Voluntary welfare work has been transformed from a distinct activity of concerned citizens toward
market-oriented services production (Sunesson et al., 1998). For example, Swedish women’s
shelters, once a grassroots feminist movement, currently carry out commissioned work for the
municipal social services on a contract basis (Enander et al., 2013). Studies in other countries, such
as the United Kingdom (Simmonds, 2016), have also shown a shift in the funding of generic victim
services, from reliable and consistent state funding to local commissioning where ‘the market’ is
seen as the best way to achieve efficient and cost-effective services.
The changing relationship between the state and NGOs raises important issues and questions.
NGOs are defined as being ‘non-governmental’, a definition that shows an evident relationship.
Government–NGO relations are often multi-layered and NGOs can take on a mix of different roles
simultaneously depending on th e historical and national cont ext (Young, 2000). Partnerships
between the state and NGOs can also, as Salamon (1987) points out, encounter strains and difficul-
ties. For example, several studies have pointed toward a number of risks to NGOs from long-term
dependence on government funding, including dilution of the NGO’s mission, increased bureau-
cracy, over-professionalization, and a potential loss of autonomy (Gibelman, 2007; Salamon, 1987;
Saperstein,2003; Sherman, 1995). Clark (1995)states that a healthy relationship between NGOsand
the government is only conceivable when both parties share common objectives.
Other studies argue that while government grants can affect NGOs’ strategic decisions, they do
not pressure NGOs to change their fundamental values (Johansson, 2005; Monsma, 1996, 2004).
Verschuere and De Corte (2014) show that government funding seems to have more influence in
the decisions about target groups and obtained results, compared with the definition of mission and
goals and work processes. Swedish research has also indicated that once an NGO has received the
grant, there is fairly broad discretion in its use (Johansson, 2005). Other studies, such as Enander
et al. (2013) who have studied Swedish history and the development of Swedish women’s shelters,
have highlighted that government grants can increase the risk of co-option, where the NGOs absorb
the values and interests of the state. Nevertheless, the complex relationship between the state and
NGOs is poorly understood and often simplified and there is a lack of a theoretical framework for
understanding this relationship (Najam, 2000). It is hence key to investigate how financial depen-
dence on the state may influence the autonomy of a non-governmental advocacy organization, in
this case in the area of victim support.
This article focuses on the relationship between the state and Sweden’s largest non-
governmental victim support umbrella organization, Victim Support Sweden (VSS). VSS is the
only nationwide Swedish organization that focuses on victims of all types of crime. There are other
92 International Review of Victimology 25(1)
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